REPORT ON RESEARCH WORK DONE ON

“THE EFFECT OF ASANS AND PRANAYAMS ON

NEUROLOGICAL, NEUROMUSCULAR & CARDIO-

RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS IN HEALTHY HUMAN

VOLUNTEERS”

SUBMITTED TO

CENTRAL COUNCIL FOR RESEARCH IN YOGA &

NATUROPATHY (CCRYN), MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND

FAMILY WELFARE, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, NEW DELHI

CHIEF INVESTIGATOR

DR. MADANMOHAN, MD, FIAY Director-Professor and Head, Department of Physiology

Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education & Research

(JIPMER), Pondicherry- 605 006, India.

CO-INVESTIGATORS

DR. GOPAL KRUSHNA PAL, MD

Professor of Physiology, JIPMER

&

DR. N. KRISHNAMURTHY, PhD

Associate Professor of Physiology,

Pondicherry Institute of Medical Sciences

Contents Page

List of abbreviations i

Introduction 1

Aims and objectives 4

Subjects and methods 5

Results and discussion 13

Summary and conclusions 22

Recommendations 23

References 24

Papers published 27

Papers presented in conferences 28

Yoga training imparted 29

i

ABBREVIATIONS

ART Auditory reaction time (ms) BMI Body mass index (units) BP Blood pressure (mm Hg) CMAP Compound muscle action potential (mV) CVRRI Coefficient of variation of RR intervals DP Diastolic pressure (mm Hg) EEG Electroencephalogram ERV Expiratory reserve volume (L) FEF Forced expiratory flow (L/s) FEV1 Forced expiratory volume in 1st sec (L) FIF Forced inspiratory flow (L/s) FVC Forced vital capacity (L) HF nu High frequency spectral power of RR intervals in normalized units HR Heart rate (beats/min) HRV Heart rate variability HRVdb Heart rate variation during deep breathing Ht Height (m) IC Inspiratory capacity IHG Isometric handgrip strength (mm Hg) Lat Latency of compound muscle action potential LF nu Low frequency spectral power of RR intervals in normalized units MEP Maximum expiratory pressure (mm Hg) MIP Maximum inspiratory pressure (mm Hg) MP Mean pressure (mm Hg) MVV Maximum voluntary ventilation (L / min) PEFR Peak expiratory flow rate (L/min) PFT Pulmonary function tests PIFR Peak inspiratory flow rate (L/min) PP Pulse pressure RPP Rate-pressure product (units) RRIV RR interval variation RT Reaction time (ms) SDNN Standard deviation of normal-to-normal RR intervals (ms) S: L Standing-to-lying heart rate ratio SNAP Sensory nerve action potential SP Systolic pressure (mm Hg) SVC Slow vital capacity (L) V Velocity of nerve impulse (m/s) VEP Visual evoked potential VR Valsalva ratio VRT Visual reaction time (ms) VT Tidal volume (ml) Wt Body weight (kg)

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INTRODUCTION

Yoga is an effective and time-tested method for improving health as well as prevention

and management of diseases especially psychosomatic and degenerative disorders. Yoga is a

scientific-spiritual discipline and our cultural heritage. Rigved, the first book of humankind,

exhorts us to meditate on the Divine (Yunjate man ut Yunjate. Rigved, 5:81:1). Yajurved asks

us to practice yoga for enhancing our physical and mental powers (Yoge yoge tavastaram

vaje vaje havamahe. Yajurved, 11:14). Upanishads repeatedly refer to yogavidya.

Bhagavadgita, also known as yogashastra is replete with sayings on yoga and yogeshvar

Krishna describes the superiority of a yogi thus: “The yogi is superior to the ascetics; he is

regarded as superior even to those well versed in the sacred lore. The yogi is also superior to

those who perform action with motive. Therefore, Arjuna be thou a yogi” (Tapasvibhyo –

adhiko yogi. Bhagavadgita, 6:46).

Recently, there has been an increased awareness and interest in health and natural

remedies amongst the general public as well as the scientific community. The role of yoga in

promoting health and prevention and cure of diseases, especially psychosomatic disorders

has been established by recent scientific studies. Yogic techniques produce consistent

physiological changes and have sound scientific basis (Madanmohan et al, 1983; Wallace et

al, 1971; Udupa et al, 1975). There is evidence that pranayam training produces deep

psychosomatic relaxation (Madanmohan et al, 1983) and improvement of cardio-respiratory

efficiency (Gopal et al, 1973). Chhina (1974) has reported that yogis are capable of

controlling their autonomic functions. Raghuraj et al (1998) have found that practice of nadi

shuddhi pranayam results in alteration of autonomic balance towards the parasympathetic

side whereas bellows type of pranayam like kapalabhati increases the sympathetic activity.

Telles et al (1994) have demonstrated that pranayam breathing through right nostril results in

an increase in sympathetic activity whereas left nostril breathing decreases it.

Yoga is the ancient heritage of India that has given man the answers to his spiritual and

holistic search for perfect health and well being for millennia and guided him in his search

for the ultimate truth. Modern life is full of stress and stress-related disorders are rampant in

today’s world. The very existence of mankind is threatened by new epidemics of stress-

related disorders that have disrupted human life totally. Yoga is the panacea for the modern

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stress epidemic and has been demonstrated to be an answer to stress and stress-related

disorders (Malathi and Damodaran, 1999; Madanmohan et al 2002). The yogic lifestyle,

yogic diet, yogic attitudes and various yogic practices help man to strengthen his body and

mind and develop positive health. Yoga enables us to withstand stress by normalising the

perception of stress, optimising the reaction to it and effectively releasing the pent-up stress

through various yogic techniques. Yoga has various facets and the main techniques that are

useful for modern man are hatha yoga asans and pranayams, dharana and dhyan. These are

most effective when practised in combination, performed consciously and with awareness.

Yogasans help to develop strength, flexibility, will power, good health, and stability and

when practiced as a whole with the other limbs of yoga, they give the practitioner a 'stable

and unified strong personality'.

Yoga pranayams help us to control our breath and through this breath control to attain

mental poise known as samatvam (Samatvam yoga uchyate. Bhagavadgita, 2:48). Regulated,

slow, deep and rhythmic breathing is ideal for controlling stress and our animal tendencies as

well as in overcoming emotional hang-ups. Pranayam also helps us to stabilize our mind,

which has been compared to a ‘drunken monkey bitten by a scorpion’. Animals that breathe

slowly are seen to be of less excitable nature than those who breathe rapidly and this

observation holds true for humans as well. We can observe that our breathing becomes rapid

when we are angry and it is slower when we are cool and relaxed. Conversely, slow rhythmic

and controlled breathing in pranayams leads to emotional control as seen in yoga sadhaks.

The yoga techniques of dharana and dhyan help us to focus our mind and dwell in it, thus

helping us to channel our creative energy in a holistic manner towards the right type of

evolutionary activities. They help us to understand our self better and in the process become

better humans in this social world.

Over the years numerous scientific studies from our institute, JIPMER and other

laboratories all over the world have shown that yoga has beneficial effect on our

physiological and psychological functions. It has been documented that yoga has sound

scientific basis and is an ideal tool that can be used to improve the health of our masses.

However, there are still many lacunae in our understanding of the physiological basis of

yogic techniques and the mechanisms of their action. To shed more light on these phenomena

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as well as to put yoga on a firm scientific pedestal and popularize it among the general

public, we planned to undertake a systematic study on the effect of yogic techniques on

physiological functions.

4

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. To study the effect of yogasans and pranayams on neurological, neuromuscular,

respiratory and cardiac autonomic functions in healthy human volunteers

2. To determine the mechanism of these physiological effects

3. To popularise the art and science of yoga amongst the general public through

publication of these studies

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SUBJECTS AND METHODS

148 male trainees of Pondicherry Police (18-40 y) from the Police Training School,

Indira Nagar, Pondicherry and 48 male student volunteers (12-15 y) studying in the

Government Higher Secondary School, Indira Nagar, Pondicherry were recruited for the

present study. The Institute Ethics Committee approved the study protocol. All subjects

gave informed consent. Exclusion Criteria: i) previous experience of yoga training, ii)

history of major medical illness in the past e.g., tuberculosis, hypertension, diabetes

mellitus, bronchial asthma etc, iii) history of major surgery in the recent past.

I. STUDY GROUPS AND TRAINING:

148 police trainees were randomly allocated to four groups (37 in each group) viz.

asan group, pranayam group, asan-pranayam group and control group. 48 student

volunteers were also allocated to four groups consisting of 12 subjects in each group.

Yoga training given to the groups is detailed below.

Group I (asan group): The subjects were taught following yogasans for two weeks by

a qualified yoga teacher: talasan, utkatasan, trikonasan, ardha-matsyendrasan, bakasan,

pavanamuktasan, navasan, noukasan, matsyasan, pashchimottanasan, halasan,

bhujangasan, shalabhasan, sarvangasan and shavasan. Then they practised the same

under our direct supervision for one hour daily, four days a week, for a total duration of 6

months. Techniques of these practices are given elsewhere (Gitananda 1981, Iyengar

2001, Yoga 2002, Yogeswar 1982).

Group II (pranayam group): The subjects were trained to perform the following

pranayams: vibhag pranayam, mukh-bhastrika, mahat-yoga pranayam, nadi shuddhi

pranayam and savitri pranayam. After 2 weeks of training, they practised the same under

our direct supervision for one hour daily, four days a week, for a total duration of 6

months.

Group III (asan-pranayam group): The subjects were taught the following yogasans

and pranayams for two weeks: talasan, utkatasan, trikonasan, ardhamatsyendrasan,

bakasan, pavanamuktasan, navasan, noukasan, matsyasan, pashchimottanasan, halasan,

bhujangasan, shalabhasan, sarvangasan, shavasan, vibhag pranayam, mukh-bhastrika,

mahat yoga pranayam, nadi shuddhi and savitripranayam. Then they practised the same

6

under our direct supervision for one hour daily, four days a week, for a total duration of 6

months.

Group IV (control group): The subjects in the control group did not receive any yoga

training but were asked to continue their regular activities throughout the period of the

study.

II. PARAMETERS:

1. Anthropometric measurements:

i. Height (Ht)

ii. Weight (Wt)

iii. Body mass index (BMI)

iv. Body fat (%)

v. Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

2. Resting cardiovascular parameters:

i. Heart rate (HR)

ii. Systolic pressure (SP)

iii. Diastolic pressure (DP)

iv. Mean pressure (MP)

v. Pulse pressure (PP)

vi. Rate-pressure product (RPP)

3. Pulmonary function tests:

i. Forced vital capacity (FVC)

ii. Forced expiratory volume in 1st second (FEV1)

iii. Peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR)

iv. Peak inspiratory flow rate (PIFR)

v. Forced inspiratory flow 50 (FIF50)

vi. Forced expiratory flow 25-75 (FEF25-75)

vii. Slow vital capacity (SVC)

viii. Inspiratory capacity (IC)

ix. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

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x. Tidal volume (VT)

xi. Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV)

4. Autonomic function tests:

i. Heart rate variability (HRV) at rest and during head - up tilt / standing

ii. Standing-to-lying heart rate ratio (S: L ratio)

iii. Valsalva ratio (VR)

iv. Heart rate variation during deep breathing (HRV db)

v. BP and HR response to head -up tilt

vi. BP and HR response to sustained isometric handgrip

5. Electroencephalogram (EEG):

Spectral powers of α, β, δ and θ waves

6. Electrophysiological parameters:

i. Nerve conduction velocity (NCV)

ii. Latency and amplitude of compound muscle action potential (CMAP)

iii. Latency and amplitude of visual evoked potential (VEP)

7. Reaction time:

i. Auditory reaction time (ART)

ii. Visual reaction time (VRT)

iii. Red and green discrimination time

III. MEASUREMENTS:

Anthropometric measurements: Body weight (with light clothes and without

footwear) was measured using pedestal type weighing scale (TESTUT, PRECISION,

MOYENNE, France) having an accuracy of 10 g. Height (without footwear) was

measured using a vertical mobile scale (Avery, India) with an accuracy of 0.1 cm. BMI

was calculated from the formula: BMI = Wt (kg) / Ht (m) 2. BMR and % body fat were

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measured using bio-impedance analysis technology with a body composition-monitoring

unit (ELG II ELECTROLIPOGRAPH, BIO/ANALOGICS, Oregon).

Resting cardiovascular parameters: HR and BP were recorded after ten minutes of

supine rest with COLIN Press-Mate non-invasive BP monitor (COLIN Corporation,

Japan). The difference between SP and DP was recorded as PP. MP was calculated as MP

= DP + PP/3 and RPP was calculated by using the formula RPP=HR × SP × 10-2.

Pulmonary function tests (PFT): The PFT were measured by a computerized serial

connected rolling seal spirometer (SPIRO 232 PULMOLAB, MORGAN, England). To

measure the flow and volume parameters such as VT, FVC, FEV1, PEFR, PIFR, ERV,

FEF and IC, the subject was asked to take three or four quiet tidal breaths and then

instructed to breathe in fully and then breathe out as forcefully and completely as

possible. This was followed by an equally rapid and complete inspiration. The data

obtained was analysed through the Morgan Data Acquisition System (MDAS) software

and printout of the values taken. To measure SVC, the subject took four to five quiet tidal

breaths and then took a deep inspiration to maximum and followed it with a slow,

complete expiration. MVV was measured by asking the subject to breathe as deeply and

rapidly as possible (at a frequency of about 40/min) for 15 seconds.

Autonomic function tests in student volunteers: The standard deviation of 150 RR

intervals during supine rest was noted as RRIV (Sneddon, 1999). The heart rate variation

during deep breathing (HRVdb) was obtained during timed deep breathing at 6/min as the

average difference between the maximum HR and min HR during six breathing cycles

(Ewing, 1985). Valsalva maneuver was performed by asking the comfortably seated

subject to maintain an expiratory pressure of 40 mm Hg for 15 seconds by blowing into a

mouthpiece connected to a mercury manometer. Valsalva ratio was calculated by dividing

the longest RR interval recorded immediately after the maneuver by the shortest RR

interval during the maneuver (Sneddon, 1999). The subject performed the maneuver three

times, each separated by five minutes rest period. The highest ratio from these three

successive attempts was taken for statistical analysis. The pressor response to sustained

isometric handgrip was obtained by asking the subject to maintain 1/3 of MVC for one

minute using an inflated sphygmomanometer cuff and the BP was measured at the end of

1 minute of the sustained handgrip. Orthostatic test was performed by measuring baseline

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BP after 5 minutes of supine rest using COLIN Press-Mate BP monitor (COLIN

Corporation, Japan). The subject was then asked to stand up for two minutes and BP was

recorded at first and second minutes after standing. The pressor response was noted as the

difference between baseline BP and BP after 1 and 2 minutes after standing.

Autonomic function tests in police trainees: ECG was recorded during all the tests

using the BIOPAC MP 100 data acquisition system (BIOPAC Inc, USA). BP was

recorded using COLIN Press-Mate BP Monitor. Heart rate variability (HRV) was

determined as per the recommendations of the Task Force Report (1996). Briefly, a

bipolar chest lead ECG was acquired at a rate of 1000 samples per second for 5 minutes

during supine rest and head - up tilt, with the subjects breathing normally at 12 – 18 per

minute, using the BIOPAC MP 100 system (BIOPAC Inc., USA) and RR intervals

plotted using the BIOPAC AcqKnowledge 3.7.1 software. An RR series was extracted

using a rate-detector algorithm after exclusion of artifacts and ectopics. A stationary 256-

second RR series was chosen for analysis. In the time domain, the standard deviation of

normal-to-normal RR intervals (SDNN) was taken as an index of overall HRV. The

coefficient of variation of RR intervals (CVRRI), an index of overall HRV normalized for

differences in mean RR was calculated as (SDNN / mean RR) × 100. The RR series was

resampled at 4 Hz, the mean and trend removed, a Hann window applied and the 1024

data point series transformed by fast Fourier transformation. LF and HF powers were

obtained by integrating the RR power spectrum between 40 mHz and 150 mHz and 150

mHz and 400 mHz respectively. We wanted to evaluate the effect of yoga training on

sympathovagal balance. Therefore, LF power is expressed in normalized units thus: LF

nu = LF power × 100 / (LF + HF powers) and used as an index of sympathovagal balance

during head-up tilt. For determining heart rate variation during deep breathing (HRVdb),

the subject was made to lie down comfortably on a couch and instructed to breathe slowly

and deeply at six breaths per minute. Beat-to-beat variations in HR were derived offline

using a rate-detector algorithm (AcqKnowledge 3.7.1 software, BIOPAC Inc., USA).

HRVdb was expressed as the average of differences between maximum HR and

minimum HR during six deep breathing cycles (Ewing et al, 1985). For determining BP

and HR response to head-up tilt, baseline BP and HR were measured after 5 minutes of

rest in supine position on a tilt table. BP was measured with an oscillometric device

(COLIN Press-Mate BP Monitor). We used a manually operated tilt table with footplate

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support. The subject was strapped to the tilt table by safety restraints. After 5 minutes rest

in supine position, subject was tilted 70° head-up for 5 minutes. BP was recorded

immediately, 2 minutes and 5 minutes after the tilt. The pressor responses were noted as

the difference between BP after the tilt and supine BP prior to the tilt. HR responses were

similarly quantified. For determining pressor response to sustained isometric handgrip,

the subject was asked to maintain 1/3 of MVC for one minute using a partially inflated

sphygmomanometer cuff and BP was measured at the end of 1 minute of sustained

handgrip.

Electroencephalogram: Surface electrodes were fixed using an electrode cap on the

scalp of the subject according to 10 - 20 international electrode placement system. EEG

recording was acquired continuously for 10 minutes (5 minutes eyes open followed by 5

minutes of eyes closed) using BIOPAC MP 100 hardware (BIOPAC Inc., USA). The

spectral analysis of EEG of the right occipital area was performed using a Fast Fourier

Transform (FFT) algorithm of the artifact-free epoch and the power spectra of alpha, beta,

theta and delta waves were analyzed using the BIOPAC AcqKnowledge 3.7.1 software

(BIOPAC Inc., USA) and a Microsoft Windows-based PC. Spectral power was obtained

by integrating the power spectrum from 8–15 Hz (alpha), 14–30 Hz (beta), 4–7 Hz (theta)

and 1– 3.5 Hz (delta) and the percentage of the respective wave in relation to the total

power was calculated.

Electrophysiologic studies: All electrophysiologic studies were done using EP –

EMG Medelec Sapphire system (Sapphire II, Medelec, UK) at a laboratory temperature

of 27 ± 1°C. The methods followed were those recommended by Aminoff (1992).

Median nerve motor conduction: The method adopted was that of Johnson (1980).

Active recording electrode was placed on thenar eminence at the midpoint between

metacarpophalangeal joint of thumb and midpoint of distal crease. Reference electrode

was placed distally on thumb and ground electrode was wrapped around the wrist. Distal

latency was recorded by stimulating median nerve 8 cm proximal to the active electrode

located between the palmaris longus and flexor carpi radialis tendon. Proximal latency

was recorded by stimulating the median nerve at elbow, medial to brachial artery.

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Distance between the two stimulating cathodes was measured and the conduction velocity

was calculated by dividing this distance by the difference between proximal and distal

latencies.

Common peroneal nerve motor conduction: The active recording electrode was

placed on the bulk of extensor digitorum brevis and the reference electrode was placed

distally near the small toe. The ground electrode was placed at the ankle. Distal latency

was recorded by stimulating the peroneal nerve 8 cm proximal to the active recording

electrode at ankle. Proximal latency was recorded by stimulating at fibular head.

Conduction velocity was calculated by measuring the distance between the stimulating

cathodes.

Median nerve sensory conduction: The active and reference electrodes were placed 4

cm apart over the middle finger and the ground was placed over the palmar aspect at

wrist. The distal and proximal latencies were recorded by stimulating the median nerve 14

cm proximal to the active electrode at wrist and near brachial artery at elbow respectively

and the velocity was calculated by measuring the distance between them.

Sural nerve sensory conduction: The active recording electrode was placed below the

lateral malleolus and the reference electrode was placed 4 cm apart from the active

electrode towards the toe. The latency was determined by stimulating the nerve 14 cm

proximally from the active electrode.

Electromyography: The surface EMG from frontalis muscle of the forehead and

biceps of the dominant hand were studied. To evaluate the muscle relaxation and the

muscle strength, two surface electrodes were fixed on the muscle of the subject. EMG

was recorded after 5 min supine rest and during maximal voluntary contraction of the

muscle. The maximum amplitude of the raw EMG was determined. Mean values of the

amplitude of the CMAP were compared before and after yoga training.

Visual evoked potential (VEP): The visual evoked potential study was performed

according to the method adopted by Aminoff (1992). The recording electrode was placed

at Oz as per the 10 – 20 international system of EEG electrode placement. The reference

electrode was placed at FpZ and the ground electrode at the back of right ear. The pattern

reversal visual stimulus was given from a monitor kept 1.2 m away from the subject.

P100 latency was recorded by giving the stimuli at a rate of 1 Hz. 128 averaging and two

trials were done for each eye.

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Reaction time: ART and VRT were measured on a digitalized reaction time apparatus

(ANAND AGENCIES, Pune, India) by instructing the subject to lift his finger from the

key in response to a sound or light stimulus. The visual and auditory signals were given

from the front of the subject who was instructed to use his dominant hand while

responding to the signal. The subject’s response was obtained from the electronic

readings. Red and green discrimination time recordings were performed by asking the

subject to release the key related to the respective color. At least ten trials were recorded

for each measurement and mean of three similar observations was taken as a single value

for statistical analysis.

Out of the 48 school children, data is available for 45 subjects. Their anthropometric

data, resting cardiovascular parameters, indices of cardiovascular autonomic function and

electrophysiological parameters were recorded and subjected to statistical analysis. From

the police trainees, anthropometric data, resting cardiovascular parameters and indices of

cardiovascular autonomic function were obtained from 63 subjects; pulmonary function

test data from 59 subjects; nerve conduction, electromyography and evoked potential data

from 28 subjects; EEG data from 48 subjects and RT parameters from 77 subjects. These

parameters were recorded in all the four groups at the beginning of the study and again at

the end of 6 month study period. 2-3 days before actual recordings, the subjects were

familiarized with the laboratory environment and their anthropometric measurements

were taken. On the day of the test, subjects reported at our laboratory about 2 h after a

light breakfast. The laboratory temperature was maintained at 27±10C. Subjects refrained

from smoking, alcohol and caffeinated drinks on the morning of the test. None of them

was taking any medication at the time of the testing.

IV. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS:

In all the groups, the above mentioned parameters were measured at the beginning and

again at the end of the six month study period. The data was analyzed using Student’s

paired ‘t’ test to compare the pre and post training values. Wilcoxon-matched pairs test

was used for skewed data. Comparisons between groups were made by one-way analysis

of variance followed by Tukey’s test. When data were inhomogeneously distributed,

Kruskal Wallis test and Dunn’s test were used. A two tailed ‘p’ value less than 0.05 was

considered significant.

Anthropometric and resting cardiovascular parameters in school children of Pondicherry. BMI: body mass index, BMR: basal metabolic rate, HR: resting heart rate, SP: systolic pressure, DP: diastolic pressure, MP: mean pressure, PP: pulse pressure and RPP: rate-pressure product. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=11) Pranayam (n=12) Asan- pranayam (n=11) Control (n=11) B A B A B A B A

Height (m) 1.51 1.54 1.57 1.61 1.60 1.61 1.56 1.58 ± 0.03 ± 0.03*** ± 0.02 ± 0.02*** ± 0.02 ± 0.02** ± 0.02 ± 0.02*** Weight (kg) 35.40 37.77 39.28 40.98 40.64 42.23 40.47 40.76 ± 1.88 ± 2.20* ± 1.36 ± 1.41** ± 1.57 ± 1.50** ± 1.87 ± 2.02

BMI (Kg/m2) 15.49 15.86 15.79 15.85 15.90 16.21 16.44 16.17 ± 0.45 ± 0.55 ± 0.24 ± 0.24 ± 0.36 ± 0.38* ± 0.51 ± 0.49

Body fat (%) 8.90 11.52 8.58 8.81 9.42 8.73 10.35 9.75 ± 1.33 ± 0.82* ± 0.78 ± 1.03 ± 0.83 ± 0.81 ± 1.05 ± 0.79

BMR (K Cal/d) 1182.09 1223.45 1277.25 1303.92 1289.91 1342.40 1287.77 1292.18 ± 37.30 ± 42.30* ± 28.36 ± 32.86 ± 31.68 ± 31.26** ± 37.04 ± 41.45

HR (beats/min) 71.27 69.82 73.58 67.42 68.09 68.00 76.15 74.64 ± 2.73 ± 3.70 ± 3.14 ± 3.03** ± 2.87 ± 3.28 ± 2.45 ± 4.45

SP (mm Hg) 98.91 97.18 105.00 103.17 101.91 97.55 104.31 98.27 ± 2.39 ± 2.10 ± 2.21 ± 2.48 ± 1.36 ± 2.23* ± 1.33 ± 2.32*

DP (mm Hg) 51.64 51.82 56.17 56.75 52.55 49.18 53.31 49.82 ± 1.41 ± 1.46 ± 1.37 ± 2.22 ± 1.54 ± 1.33* †† ± 1.14 ± 1.29 †

MP (mm Hg) 67.39 66.94 72.44 72.22 69.00 55.88 70.31 65.97 ± 1.62 ± 1.51 ± 1.42 ± 2.18 ± 1.32 ± 5.11* † ± 1.04 ± 1.36*

PP (mm Hg) 47.27 45.36 48.83 46.42 49.36 48.36 51.00 48.45 ± 1.65 ± 1.66 ± 1.98 ± 1.64 ± 1.44 ± 2.25 ± 1.31 ± 2.17*

RPP 70.77 67.99 77.24 69.54 69.38 66.28 79.34 73.26 ± 3.82 ± 4.21 ± 3.66 ± 3.53** ± 3.07 ± 3.52 ± 2.57 ± 4.65

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 by paired ‘t’ test. † p = 0.02 by ANOVA between groups & p < 0.05 for pranayam vs. asan – pranayam groups. †† p < 0.01 by ANOVA between groups & p < 0.05 for pranayam vs. asan- pranayam and pranayam vs. control group.

Table 1:

RRIV: RR interval variation, HRVdb: heart rate variation during deep breathing, S: L: standing-to-lying heart rate ratio and VR: Valsalva ratio in school children of Pondicherry. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=11) Pranayam (n=12) Asan- pranayam (n=11) Control (n=11) B A B A B A B A

RRIV 7.57 7.83 6.45 7.70 7.91 7.97 6.85 7.02 ± 0.85 ± 0.66 ± 0.68 ± 1.01 ± 1.44 ± 0.81 ± 0.73 ± 0.75 HRVdb 25.93 26.78 29.33 32.34 27.86 30.53 28.49 31.33 ± 0.87 ± 2.23 ± 2.49 ± 2.57 ± 2.42 ± 1.92 ± 1.99 ± 3.30 S: L 1.29 1.14 1.21 1.15 1.23 1.25 1.23 1.11 ± 0.02 ± 0.03** ± 0.04 ± 0.02 ± 0.03 ± 0.05 ± 0.03 ± 0.02** VR 1.93 2.19 1.87 2.08 2.06 2.29 1.85 2.25 ± 0.10 ± 0.09* ± 0.09 ± 0.12 ± 0.12 ± 0.13* ± 0.07 ± 0.10***

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 by paired ‘t’ test.

Table 3:

1st and 2nd minute response of SP: systolic pressure, DP: diastolic pressure, MP: mean pressure and PP: pulse pressure to orthostatic test in school children of Pondicherry. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=11) Pranayam (n=12) Asan-pranayam (n=11) Control (n=11) B A B A B A B A

1st min SP (mm Hg) 4.27 6.36 5.33 11.42 4.45 9.55 6.00 5.18 ± 1.10 ± 2.63 ± 1.33 ± 1.53** ± 1.41 ± 1.98 ± 1.98 ± 2.50 DP (mm Hg) 5.09 4.64 8.25 6.00 7.36 6.09 3.77 8.91 ± 2.09 ± 2.32 ± 1.33 ± 2.75 ± 1.93 ± 1.64 ± 3.51 ± 2.92 MP (mm Hg) 5.91 5.55 7.00 8.17 10.91 8.55 8.31 8.55 ± 1.63 ± 2.04 ± 1.4 ± 2.79 ± 1.16 ± 1.38 ± 1.78 ± 2.33 PP (mm Hg) -0.82 1.73 -2.92 5.42 -2.91 3.45 2.23 -3.73 ± 1.95 ± 2.89 ± 1.48 ± 2.58* ± 2.89 ± 0.89 ± 3.05 ± 3.75* 2nd min SP (mm Hg) 3.00 4.27 8.58 6.67 2.73 10.36 4.62 5.55 ± 1.25 ± 1.79 ± 2.33 ± 2.58 ± 1.70 ± 2.02** ± 2.27 ± 2.19 DP (mm Hg) 3.64 1.64 5.75 6.83 6.09 1.09 5.85 6.73 ± 1.66 ± 1.61 ± 3.10 ± 1.25 ± 1.44 ± 2.97 ± 1.81 ± 3.86† MP (mm Hg) 5.45 4.27 8.08 5.00 9.27 7.18 7.31 8.09 ± 1.19 ± 2.04 ± 1.86 ± 2.35 ± 1.80 ± 1.61 ± 2.06 ± 2.84 PP (mm Hg) -0.64 2.64 2.83 -0.17 -2.91 9.27 -1.23 -1.18 ± 2.01 ± 1.19 ± 2.67 ± 2.82 ± 1.89 ± 3.82* ± 2.16 ± 3.70

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 by paired ‘t’ test. †p = 0.03 by Kruskal Wallis test between groups and p> 0.05 between asan vs. control.

Table 4:

HR: Heart rate, SP: systolic pressure, DP: diastolic pressure, MP: mean pressure and PP: pulse pressure response to isometric handgrip test in school children of Pondicherry. B: at the beginning and A: after 6 months’ study period.

Asan (n=11)

Pranayam (n=12)

Asan-pranayam (n=11)

Control (n=11) B A B A B A B A

∆ HR (beats/min) 29.91 26.27 22.33 23.83 27.36 37.73 18.08 33.80 ± 3.95 ± 4.17 ± 4.78 ± 2.54 ± 5.17 ± 3.59*† ± 4.10 ± 4.51 ∆ SP (mm Hg) 31.36 27.55 19.75 28.67 25.27 29.36 20.42 25.00 ± 5.31 ± 5.24 ± 2.13 ± 2.90* ± 5.05 ± 4.81 ± 3.16 ± 4.21 ∆ DP (mm Hg) 23.55 21.00 17.17 18.5 21.45 27.82 17.33 23.60 ± 4.64 ± 5.03 ± 2.49 ± 3.97 ± 3.04 ± 3.24 ± 3.25 ± 3.70 ∆ MP (mm Hg) 24.27 20.91 17.67 27.42 21.64 29.73 18.5 27.80 ± 5.21 ± 5.05 ± 3.43 ± 2.71 ± 4.30 ± 3.91 ± 3.03 ± 3.57 ∆ PP (mm Hg) 7.82 6.55 2.58 10.17 3.82 1.55 3.08 1.40 ± 2.41 ± 8.54 ± 2.51 ± 4.88 ± 3.26 ± 3.06 ± 2.85 ± 3.25

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. ∆ : change in the parameter

* p < 0.05 by paired ‘t’ test. † p < 0.03 by ANOVA between groups & p< 0.05 for pranayam vs. asan-pranayam group.

Table 2:

Lat: Latency & Amp: Amplitude of compound muscle action potential, and V: Velocity of motor conduction in median and common peroneal nerves in school children of Pondicherry. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=11) Pranayam (n=12) Asan- pranayam (n=11) Control (n=11) B A B A B A B A

Median nerve Lat (ms) 3.55 3.72 3.85 3.97 4.20 3.89 4.04 3.73 ± 0.08 ± 0.08 * ± 0.11 ± 0.12 ± 0.12 ± 0.10 * ± 0.12 ± 0.10 * Amp (mV) 8.52 10.42 9.38 9.27 10.39 9.64 9.02 10.20 ± 0.77 ± 0.83 ± 1.03 ± 0.84 ± 0.83 ± 1.00 ± 0.49 ± 1.11 V (m/s) 59.65 57.46 57.65 57.35 59.57 60.57 54.95 58.94

± 1.06 ± 1.08 ± 1.36 ± 1.57 ± 1.15 ± 1.29 ± 1.67 ± 2.37 **

Common peroneal nerve Lat (ms) 4.10 4.33 4.33 4.27 4.11 4.35 4.31 3.81 ± 0.24 ± 0.33 ± 0.21 ± 0.11 ± 0.14 ± 0.13 * ± 0.14 ± 0.12 ** Amp (mV) 4.54 4.32 4.98 4.65 5.56 5.63 4.63 5.27 ± 0.41 ± 0.55 ± 0.41 ± 0.49 ± 0.67 ± 0.74 ** ± 0.54 ± 0.58 * V (m/s) 50.10 49.91 48.86 48.35 48.26 49.30 47.63 48.81

± 0.65 ± 0.88 ± 0.52 ± 0.84 ± 0.77 ± 0.67 ± 1.10 ± 1.57 Values are expressed as mean ± SEM.

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 by paired ‘t’ test.

Table 5:

Lat: latency and Amp: amplitude of sensory nerve action potential, duration of action potential and V: velocity of sensory conduction in median and sural nerves in school children of Pondicherry. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=11) Pranayam (n=12) Asan-pranayam (n=11) Control (n=11) B A B A B A B A

Median nerve Lat (ms) 2.63 2.70 2.80 2.83 2.98 2.64 3.07 2.70 ± 0.07 ± 0.06 ± 0.07 ± 0.08 ± 0.07 ± 0.04 *** ± 0.09 ± 0.13 ** Amp (µV) 61.12 69.45 62.93 66.00 61.69 53.08 57.88 54.41 ± 4.96 ± 11.50 ± 4.71 ± 8.63 ± 3.78 ± 4.48 * ± 3.80 ± 3.49 Duration (ms) 2.18 2.31 2.46 2.45 2.75 2.32 2.59 2.23 ± 0.08 ± 0.04 ± 0.08 ± 0.10 ± 0.12 ± 0.06 ** ± 0.09 ± 0.14 ** V (m/s) 53.67 51.99 50.34 49.78 47.20 53.10 46.09 52.63 ± 1.43 ± 1.17 ± 1.25 ± 1.39 ± 1.07 ± 0.86 *** ± 1.26 ± 2.25 ** Sural nerve Lat (ms) 2.94 3.10 3.33 3.24 3.43 3.31 3.37 3.28 ± 0.07 ± 0.09 ± 0.07 ± 0.10 ± 0.07 ± 0.06 ± 0.13 ± 0.18 * Amp (µV) 12.29 14.69 11.61 14.38 14.98 13.76 14.54 12.20 ± 1.65 ± 1.69 ± 2.13 ± 1.68 ± 1.64 ± 1.38 ± 1.43 ± 1.20 Duration (ms) 2.03 2.06 1.94 2.12 2.19 2.01 2.13 1.97 ± 0.09 ± 0.15 ± 0.09 ± 0.10 ± 0.12 ± 0.10 ± 0.11 ± 0.11 V (m/s) 47.93 45.39 42.34 43.62 41.03 42.41 42.23 43.21

± 1.16 ± 1.33 ± 0.96 ± 1.24 ± 0.90 ± 0.88 ± 1.40 ± 1.83 Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 by paired ‘t’ test.

Table 6:

Latency and amplitude of visual evoked potential and EMG voltage of school children of Pondicherry. Vmax: EMG voltage during maximal voluntary contraction B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=11) Pranayam (n=12) Asan-pranayam (n=11) Control (n=11) B A B A B A B A

Latency (ms) Left 108.02 107.15 106.28 103.89 105.75 103.13 102.02 105.02 ± 1.45 ± 1.95 ± 1.54 ± 1.05 ± 2.50 ± 3.11 ± 1.51 ± 1.73 Right 107.06 105.26 105.65 104.09 104.94 105.25 101.58 104.28 ± 1.27 ± 1.71 ± 1.84 ± 1.18 ± 2.42 ± 4.92 ± 1.40 ± 1.20 * Amplitude (µV)

Left 19.03 17.49 15.25 13.38 16.17 13.84 12.89 14.93 ± 1.75 ± 2.58 ± 1.92 ± 1.80 ± 2.44 ± 1.96 ± 1.35 ± 2.01 Right 19.80 17.91 14.58 13.21 14.85 13.23 13.48 15.96 ± 2.34 ± 3.49 ± 2.14 ± 1.42 ± 1.94 ± 1.92 ± 1.43 ± 1.95 EMG (µV) Frontalis (resting)

13.18 15.00 13.75 14.38 14.09 10.91 15.38 12.78

± 1.22 ± 0.94† ± 1.25 ± 1.24 ± 1.48 ± 0.61 * ± 1.20 ± 0.88 Biceps (mV) (Vmax) 2.82 3.81 3.04 2.83 2.64 3.00 2.69 2.56

± 0.30 ± 0.64 ± 0.51 ± 0.25 ± 0.31 ± 0.39 ± 0.20 ± 0.45

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM.

* p < 0.05 by paired ‘t’ test. †p=0.03 by ANOVA between groups and p<0.05 for asana vs. asan- pranayam groups.

Table 7:

Table 8: Anthropometric and resting cardiovascular parameters in police trainees. BMI: body mass index; HR: resting heart

rate; SP: systolic pressure; DP: diastolic pressure and RPP: rate - pressure product. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n = 19) Pranayam (n = 16) Asan - Pranayam (n = 17) Controls (n = 11)

B A B A B A B A

Weight (kg) 65.2 ± 5.9 65.2 ± 5.9 66.4 ± 4.5 63.6 ± 4.4 69.1 ± 6.6 65.9 ± 6.4 68 ± 4.8 67 ± 4.7 Height (m) 1.71 ± 1.04 1.71 ± 1.04 1.71 ± 0.04 1.71 ± 1.04 1.74 ± 0.04 1.71 ± 1.04 1.72 ± 0.03 1.71 ± 1.04 BMI (kg/m2) 22.24 ± 1.9 22.28 ± 2.1 23.2 ± 1.7 22 ± 3 23.8 ± 2.1 22.8 ± 2 23 ± 1.4 23.2 ± 1.9 HR (bpm) 60 ± 8 64 ± 10 63 ± 12 65 ± 9 65 ± 9 62 ± 10 65 ± 7 66 ± 8 SP (mm Hg) 113 ± 7 112 ± 7 118 ± 10 111 ± 5* 111 ± 10 108 ± 7 113 ± 7 109 ± 9* DP (mm Hg) 60 ± 6 58 ± 6 64 ± 7 60 ± 5* 62 ± 6 59 ± 5* 63 ± 6 61 ± 7 RPP 68 ± 12 72 ± 15 74 ± 15 72 ± 12 72 ± 15 67 ± 13 73 ± 12 74 ± 15

Values are given as mean ± SD *p < 0.05 by paired‘t’ test

Table 9 FVC: forced vital capacity; FEV1: forced expiratory volume in 1st second; PEFR: peak expiratory flow rate; PIFR: peak inspiratory flow rate; FIF50: Maximum mid-inspiratory flow rate; FEF25-75: forced expiratory flow between 25 – 75% of vital capacity of Pondicherry police trainees. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=20)

Pranayam (n=23)

Asan-pranayam (n=16) B A B A B A

3.96 4.18 3.71 3.88 3.92 4.19 FVC (L) ± 0.11 ± 0.12 *† ± 0.11 ± 0.12 * ± 0.13 ± 0.13 *†

81.30 86.21 77.65 80.79 81.00 86.19 FVC (%) ± 2.26 ± 2.37 *† ± 2.18 ± 2.00 * ± 3.06 ± 2.53 *†

3.85 3.97 3.63 3.78 3.79 4.01 FEV1 (L) ± 0.10 ± 0.10 * ± 0.11 ± 0.10 * ± 0.10 ± 0.10**

93.10 96.37 89.61 92.95 92.31 96.63 FEV1 (%) ± 2.07 ± 1.97 * ± 2.58 ± 2.04 * ± 3.05 ± 2.64 *

9.38 8.98 8.54 9.10 8.63 8.93 PEFR (L/s) ± 0.45 ± 0.46 ± 0.35 ± 0.36 ± 0.37 ± 0.44

97.70 93.84 87.91 96.16 90.56 94.00 PEFR (%) ± 4.67 ± 4.58 ± 3.98 ± 4.05 ± 4.17 ± 4.75

4.77 4.83 4.86 4.33 4.20 4.96 PIFR (L/s) ± 0.41 ± 0.43 ± 0.28 ± 0.25 ± 0.39 ± 0.39

64.20 65.00 66.35 58.89 57.06 67.63 PIFR (%) ± 5.55 ± 5.83 ± 3.94 ± 3.39 ± 5.51 ± 5.32

4.24 4.31 4.50 3.94 3.72 4.27 FIF50 (L/s) ± 0.39 ± 0.46 ± 0.28 ± 0.22 ± 0.38 ± 0.39

63.50 64.53 68.13 59.53 56.13 64.63 FIF50 (%) ± 6.00 ± 6.90 ± 4.43 ± 3.24 ± 5.86 ± 5.85

5.67 5.49 5.75 5.78 5.18 5.11 FEF25-75 (L/s) ± 0.27 ± 0.29 ± 0.29 ± 0.29 ± 0.29 ± 0.32

126.75 123.05 131.96 133.16 117.56 116.44 FEF25-75 (%) ± 5.80 ± 5.53 ± 6.14 ± 7.08 ± 7.42 ± 7.62

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. * p< 0.05, ** p < 0.01 by paired ‘t’ test. %: Percentage of expected values. †p <0.05 by unpaired ‘t’ test between pranayam vs. asan - pranayam and pranayam vs. asan.

Table 10: SVC: slow vital capacity; IC: inspiratory capacity; ERV: expiratory reserve volume; VT: tidal volume; MVV: maximum voluntary ventilation of Pondicherry police trainees. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=20) Pranayam (n=23) Asan-pranayam (n=16)

B A B A B A 4.30 4.36 4.31 4.30 4.38 4.46 SVC (L)

± 0.13 ± 0.13 ± 0.08 ± 0.09 ± 0.09 ± 0.09

88.25 90.05 90.39 90.68 90.31 92.44 SVC (%) ± 2.35 ± 2.49 ± 1.41 ± 1.44 ± 2.55 ± 2.27

3.07 3.33 3.06 3.18 3.11 3.28 IC (L) ± 0.10 ± 0.10 ** ± 0.08 ± 0.08 ± 0.12 ± 0.07

93.40 102.00 95.96 98.95 95.63 101.25 IC (%) ± 2.75 ± 2.89 ** ± 2.44 ± 2.41 ± 4.03 ± 2.74

1.23 1.03 1.26 1.11 1.27 1.19 ERV (L) ± 0.10 ± 0.08 * ± 0.09 ± 0.09 ± 0.12 ± 0.08

77.70 65.37 79.09 70.58 79.94 74.75 ERV (%) ± 6.08 ± 4.79 * ± 5.46 ± 5.75 ± 8.09 ± 5.23

1.23 1.34 1.58 1.37 1.35 1.27 VT (L) ± 0.07 ± 0.10 ± 0.15 ± 0.12 ± 0.08 ± 0.14

226.80 237.39 291.91 260.32 252.13 225.62 VT (%) ± 12.25 ± 22.88 ± 31.30 ± 22.84 ± 16.12 ± 29.80

143.33 144.20 126.58 123.70 148.37 143.57 MVV (L/min) ± 8.56 ± 12.17 ± 7.44 ± 13.02 ± 8.93 ± 7.73

82.50 81.50 74.36 73.00 85.67 83.75 MVV (%) ± 5.34 ± 7.89 ± 4.10 ± 7.99 ± 5.60 ± 5.48

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM.

* p< 0.05, ** p < 0.01 by paired ‘t’ test. %: Percentage of the expected values.

Table 11: Heart rate variability during supine rest and heart rate variation during deep breathing in police trainees. SDNN: standard deviation of R-R intervals; CVRRI: coefficient of variation of R-R intervals; LF nu: low frequency power in normalized units; HRVdb: heart rate variation during deep breathing. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n = 19)

Pranayam (n = 16) Asan - Pranayam (n = 17) Control (n = 11)

B A B A B A B A

Mean RR (ms) 971 ± 137 927 ± 132 930 ± 156 920 ± 119 945 ± 149 890 ± 177 895 ± 130 941 ± 106

SDNN (ms) 79 ± 26 71 ± 25 83 ± 47 64 ± 50* 65 ± 38 69 ± 51 60 ± 29 64 ± 23

CVRRI 8.2 ± 2.6 7.6 ± 2.4 9 ± 5.4 6.7 ± 4.9* 6.6 ± 2.8 7.4 ± 3.8 6.4 ± 2.2 6.7 ± 2

LF nu 46 ± 18 60 ± 22* 59 ± 18 62 ± 22 54 ± 20 61 ± 14 54 ± 18 57 ± 21

HRVdb 33 ± 7 34 ± 8 30 ± 9 25 ± 8* 30 ± 6 29 ± 7 32 ± 6 30 ± 5

Values are expressed as mean ± SD. * p < 0.05 by paired ‘t’ test

Table 12: Blood pressure and heart rate changes during passive head - up tilt in police trainees. SP: systolic pressure; DP: diastolic pressure; HR: heart rate and RPP: rate pressure product. Imm: immediately after tilt, 2 min and 5 min: 2 and 5 minutes after the tilt. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n = 19)

Pranayam (n = 16) Asan - pranayam (n = 17) Control (n = 11)

B A

B A B A B A

SP Imm 2 ± 8 1 ± 6 3 ± 12 2 ± 6 2 ± 7 -4 ± 8 -1 ± 8 1 ± 6

2 min 4 ± 9 5 ± 5 6 ± 7 4 ± 6 2 ± 5 4 ± 7 2 ± 8 5 ± 6

5 min 4 ± 8 3 ± 7 3 ± 5 6 ± 6 3 ± 6 3 ± 12 2 ± 5 4 ± 5

DP Imm 1 ± 6 6 ± 16 2 ± 4 2 ± 4 -6 ± 12 -6 ± 9 3 ± 5 2 ± 6

2 min 5 ± 6 5 ± 4 5 ± 5 7 ± 5 -3 ± 10 -1 ± 9 6 ± 3 6 ± 4

5 min 4 ± 6 7 ± 7 3 ± 4 7 ± 4 4 ± 5 0 ± 9 2 ± 6 7 ± 4

HR Imm 6 ± 6 13 ± 7* 6 ± 8 8 ± 7 6 ± 8 14 ± 8** 4 ± 5 9 ± 9

2 min 14 ± 10 18 ± 10 8 ± 6 10 ± 6 10 ± 8 17 ± 8** 12 ± 5 13 ± 9

5 min 14 ± 10 17 ± 10 8 ± 5 11 ± 8 10 ± 8 18 ± 7** 11 ± 4 11 ± 8

RPP Imm 9 ± 8 15 ± 8 9 ± 16 10 ± 10 8 ± 8 11 ± 7 4 ± 8 11 ± 12

2 min 19 ± 12 25 ± 14 13 ± 11 15 ± 9 13 ± 10 22 ± 12* 14 ± 9 18 ± 10

5 min 19 ± 11 22 ± 12 11 ± 8 16 ± 11 14 ± 10 23 ± 15* 14 ± 7 15 ± 10

Values are expressed as mean ± SD. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 by paired ‘t’ test.

Table 13: Heart rate variability changes during passive head-up tilt. SDNN: standard deviation of normal-to-normal R-R intervals; CVRRI: coefficient of variation of R-R intervals; LF nu: low frequency power in normalized units; HUT: head-up tilt. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n = 19)

Pranayam (n = 16) Asan - Pranayam (n = 17) Control (n = 11)

B A

B A B A B A

Mean RR (ms) 840 ± 115 742 ± 100** 859 ± 134 803 ± 110 826 ± 126 757 ± 121 803 ± 95 787 ± 97

SDNN (ms) 100 ± 123 56 ± 20 73 ± 35 64 ± 38 61 ± 27 53 ± 22 57 ± 21 56 ± 14

CVRRI 12.2 ± 15.9 7.5 ± 2.5 8.5 ± 4 7.8 ± 4.3 7.2 ± 2.2 6.8 ± 2.1 7 ± 2 7.1 ± 1.5

LF nu 72 ± 16 86 ±14* 66 ± 23 85 ± 15** 72 ± 20 84 ± 18 65 ± 18 81 ± 15**

∆ mean RR during HUT -131 ± 95 -185 ± 94* -78 ± 86 -126 ± 79 -119 ± 78 -132 ± 111 -109 ±72 -131 ± 85

∆ LF nu during HUT 26 ± 18 23 ± 25 7 ± 15 20 ± 18** 17 ±14 19 ± 18 15 ± 14 27 ± 22

Values are expressed as mean ± SD. ∆: change in the parameter. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 by paired‘t’ test

Table 14: Pressor and heart rate response to sustained isometric handgrip in police trainees. SP: systolic pressure; DP: diastolic pressure; HR: heart rate and RPP: rate-pressure product. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n = 19)

Pranayam (n = 16) Asan - Pranayam (n = 17) Control (n = 11)

B A

B A B A B A

∆ SP (mm Hg) 25 ± 13 23 ± 12 27 ± 17 26 ± 8 29 ± 17 19 ± 7 24 ± 8 29 ± 16

∆ DP (mm Hg) 20 ± 12 21 ± 11 21 ± 12 22 ± 11 23 ± 12 20 ± 8 19 ± 6 26 ± 8

∆ HR (bpm) 10 ± 15 9 ± 13 10 ± 13 8 ± 12 18 ± 14 10 ± 7 16 ± 11 19 ± 18

∆ RPP (units) 34 ± 24 30 ± 22 34 ± 31 29 ± 21 47 ± 33 28 ± 14 * 41 ±24 49 ± 41

Values are expressed as mean ± SD. ∆: change in the parameter. * p < 0.05 by paired‘t’ test

Eyes open EEG recording (total integral, beta, alpha, theta and delta) of Pondicherry police trainees. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=14) Pranayam (n=15) Asan-pranayam (n=11) Control (n=8) B A B A B A B A

Total integral 0.0036 0.0064 0.0051 0.0068 0.0016 0.0084 0.0018 0.0040

± 0.0005 ± 0.0014 ± 0.0008 ± 0.0011 ± 0.0002 ± 0.0021 ± 0.0004 ± 0.0021 β integral 0.0005 0.0009 0.0008 0.0014 0.0003 0.0005 0.0002 0.0003

± 0.0001 ± 0.0003 ± 0.0002 ± 0.0003 * ± 0.0001 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0000 ± 0.0001

β % 14.70 11.62 15.39 22.03 19.40 9.93 15.76 13.01 ± 1.25 ± 1.77 ± 1.96 ± 4.03 ± 4.26 ± 1.89 * ± 4.01 ± 1.66

α integral 0.0012 0.0018 0.0014 0.0020 0.0004 0.0015 0.0003 0.0007

± 0.0002 ± 0.0005 ± 0.0003 ± 0.0004 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0004 * ± 0.0001 ± 0.0003

α % 31.08 28.96 27.43 31.18 25.98 22.83 16.57 24.42 ± 3.51 ± 4.51 * ± 4.12 ± 4.69 ± 4.49 ± 4.02 ± 1.45 ± 6.06

θ integral 0.0006 0.0015 0.0009 0.0008 0.0003 0.0013 0.0003 0.0006

± 0.0001 ± 0.0005 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0003 * ± 0.0001 ± 0.0002

θ % 16.48 22.10 18.18 13.85 17.76 15.48 16.94 16.91 ± 1.52 ± 2.88 ± 1.74 ± 1.83 ± 1.58 ± 2.02 ± 2.90 ± 1.83

∆ integral 0.0013 0.0022 0.0021 0.0023 0.0006 0.0051 0.0010 0.0023

± 0.0002 ± 0.0005 ± 0.0003 ± 0.0008 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0017 ± 0.0003 ± 0.0015

∆ % 37.74 37.32 38.99 31.40 36.85 51.76 50.73 45.66 ± 3.26 ± 4.87 ± 3.39 ± 4.48 ± 4.19 ± 4.75 *† ± 5.65 ± 5.56

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM.

*p < 0.05, †p =0.02 and p< 0.05 for pranayam vs. asan- pranayam by Tukey’s test

Table I: Table 15:

Eyes closed EEG recording (total integral, Beta, Alpha ,Theta and Delta) of Pondicherry police trainees B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=14) Pranayam (n=15) Asan-pranayam (n=11) Control (n=8) B A B A B A B A

Total integral 0.0048 0.0083 0.0050 0.0132 0.0023 0.0078 0.0019 0.0032

± 0.0010 ± 0.0012 * ± 0.0014 ± 0.0025 **† ± 0.0004 ± 0.0017 * ± 0.0005 ± 0.0007 β integral 0.0006 0.0010 0.0005 0.0016 0.0004 0.0005 0.0002 0.0003

± 0.0001 ± 0.0002 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0003 *† ± 0.0001 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0001

β % 12.00 10.87 14.11 15.54 20.00 9.88 10.82 10.49 ± 0.99 ± 1.91 ± 2.10 ± 2.89 ± 4.50 ± 2.06 ** ± 3.04 ± 1.80

α integral 0.0021 0.0030 0.0016 0.0066 0.0006 0.0017 0.0006 0.0013

± 0.0006 ± 0.0007 * ± 0.0006 ± 0.0021 ± 0.0001 ± 0.0004 * ± 0.0003 ± 0.0005

α % 35.38 32.59 33.56 38.20 27.76 27.00 30.26 40.79 ± 4.80 ± 4.62 ± 3.55 ± 6.30 ± 5.32 ± 4.82 ± 7.54 ± 8.11

θ integral 0.0008 0.0017 0.0011 0.0017 0.0004 0.0013 0.0003 0.0005

± 0.0001 ± 0.0003† ± 0.0004 ± 0.0003 *† ± 0.0001 ± 0.0003 * ± 0.0001 ± 0.0001

θ % 17.28 21.43 20.43 15.77 19.03 16.02 17.23 15.59 ± 1.40 ± 2.77 ± 1.67 ± 2.70 ± 1.57 ± 1.31 ± 3.86 ± 2.36

∆ integral 0.0014 0.0026 0.0017 0.0032 0.0008 0.0042 0.0009 0.0011

± 0.0003 ± 0.0005 ± 0.0006 ± 0.0009 ± 0.0002 ± 0.0011 ± 0.0003 ± 0.0004

∆ % 35.34 35.11 31.91 30.49 33.21 47.09 41.70 33.12 ± 4.10 ± 4.98 ± 2.80 ± 4.56 ± 3.41 ± 6.01 ± 7.44 ± 6.61

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. * p < 0.05 .** p < 0.01 by paired ‘t’ test. †p< 0.01 by Kruskal Wallis test and p < 0.01 for pranayam vs. control by Dunn’s test.

††p = 0.02 by Kruskal Wallis test and p< 0.05 for asan vs. control and pranayam vs. control by Dunn’s test

Table 16:

Lat: Latency; Amp: Amplitude of compound muscle action potential; V: Velocity of conduction in median nerve of dominant hand and EMG: resting electromyogram of right frontalis muscle in Pondicherry police trainees. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=7) Pranayam (n=8) Asan-pranayam (n=8) Control (n=5)

B A B A B A B A

Motor conduction

Lat (ms) 4.26 4.06 3.96 3.81 3.96 3.72 3.87 3.68

± 0.28 ± 0.22 * ± 0.12 ± 0.11 ± 0.05 ± 0.08 *** ± 0.21 ± 0.13

Amp (mV) 8.83 8.87 9.06 9.21 10.41 9.60 10.02 9.84 ± 1.37 ± 1.21 ± 0.53 ± 0.66 ± 0.84 ± 0.96 ± 0.81 ± 0.84

V (m/s) 53.41 53.34 57.76 56.76 58.18 56.81 57.56 55.76 ± 4.00 ± 4.54 ± 0.68 ± 0.91 ± 1.32 ± 0.81 ± 1.16 ± 1.94

Sensory conduction

Lat (ms) 3.79 3.59 3.50 3.23 3.42 3.11 ± 3.28 3.20

± 0.17 ± 0.25 ± 0.11 ± 0.05 ± 0.06 ± 0.15 0.16 ± 0.08

Amp (µV) 53.12 46.20 57.21 49.16 54.69 33.78 ± 46.56 51.52

± 9.93 ± 8.48 ± 7.02 ± 3.11 ± 5.09 ± 5.25 ** 4.72 ± 3.61 *†

V (m/s) 54.50 59.08 57.60 55.68 57.41 56.44 58.80 58.24 ± 1.61 ± 1.88 ± 0.83 ± 1.50 ± 0.95 ± 1.27 ± 0.93 ± 0.74

EMG (V) 19.29 13.29 25.00 12.50 21.25 15.94 16.00 16.00

± 2.02 ± 2.78 ± 2.11 ± 1.64 ** ± 1.57 ± 2.41 ± 1.87 ± 2.92

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 by paired ‘t’ test. †p = 0.03 by ANOVA between groups and p<0.05 for asan vs. control.

Table 17:

Latency of N75, P100 and amplitude of visual evoked potential of Pondicherry police trainees. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=7) Pranayam (n=8) Asan-pranayam (n=8) Control (n=5)

B A B A B A B A

Latency of N75 (ms)

Left 72.71 72.94 72.55 73.87 75.30 74.10 73.68 74.60

± 1.20 ± 0.73 ± 1.08 ± 0.53 ± 1.14 ± 1.46 ± 0.63 ± 3.21

Right 73.06 74.54 73.70 77.60 73.47 75.45 73.56 73.35

± 1.20 ± 1.61 ± 0.68 ± 3.66 ± 1.63 ± 1.70 ± 0.64 ± 0.80

Latency of P 100 (ms)

Left 98.37 99.57 99.53 99.27 97.70 98.05 97.68 97.72

± 0.86 ± 0.67 ** ± 1.21 ± 1.32 ± 1.41 ± 1.18 ± 2.28 ± 3.77

Right 100.51 97.49 99.03 99.47 98.37 98.20 97.48 97.36

± 1.55 ± 1.06 ± 1.05 ± 1.06 ± 1.20 ± 1.28 ± 0.96 ± 1.70

Amplitude (µV)

Left 7.24 6.51 8.36 7.01 6.42 4.93 6.23 6.64

± 1.03 ± 0.71 ± 1.19 ± 1.05 ± 0.75 ± 0.67 * ± 0.51 ± 0.64

Right 8.15 6.42 6.54 6.22 7.07 5.27 6.62 4.98

± 0.76 ± 0.65 ± 1.17 ± 0.95 ± 1.14 ± 0.88 ± 0.60 ± 0.49 Values are expressed as mean ±SEM

* p< 0.05, ** p < 0.01 by paired ‘t’ test.

Table 18:

VRT: Visual reaction time, ART: Auditory reaction time and red and green discrimination reaction times of police trainees. B: at the beginning and A: after six months’ study period.

Asan (n=16) Pranayam (n=16) Asan-pranayam (n=29) Control (n=16)

B A B A B A B A VRT (ms) 231.23 205.29 203.72 200.09 219.28 207.46 222.82 214.68

± 9.78 ± 8.71 * ± 7.25 ± 6.78 ± 3.58 ± 4.80 * ± 7.46 ± 6.04

ART (ms) 179.14 168.70 178.82 162.26 173.44 164.45 176.69 169.54 ± 7.97 ± 8.12 ± 7.04 ± 5.31 * ± 3.65 ± 2.99 * ± 5.08 ± 5.94 Discrimination Red (ms) 379.75 312.58 340.13 301.56 360.38 352.43 300.08 369.10

± 20.99 ± 17.12 ** ± 12.88 ± 18.32 * ± 16.73 ± 15.51 ± 15.52 ± 22.75 *

Green (ms) 415.63 317.56 376.44 306.00 382.78 345.05 323.08 384.75

± 26.26 ± 18.28 ** ± 21.32 ± 16.64 **† ± 15.18 ± 14.87 ± 14.20 ± 18.06 *

Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 by paired ‘t’ test. †p < 0.02 by ANOVA and p < 0.05 for pranayam vs. control.

Table I: Table 19:

13

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Anthropometric parameters: The anthropometric parameters of school children are

given in Table 1. Before yoga training, height, weight, BMI and body fat % of all the four

groups were comparable. After 6 months of training there was a statistically significant

increase in height and weight of asan, pranayam as well as asan-pranayam groups that

can be attributed to the normal growth of adolescent boys. In the asan-pranayam group

there was a small but statistically significant increase in BMI at the end of 6 month

training period. There was also a statistically significant increase (p< 0.05) in body fat %

of the asan group whereas in the other groups it didn’t show any significant change. Since

our subjects had a low body weight, BMI and body fat %, the significant increase in body

fat % in asan group indicates that asan training restores normal body fat %. The

calculated BMR didn’t change in the control group whereas in the asan and asan-

pranayam groups it increased significantly (p< 0.05 and p< 0.01 respectively). Though

there was an appreciable increase in BMR in the pranayam group, it didn’t reach the level

of statistical significance. The BMR of our subjects was on the lower side of normal and

yoga training improved it. Inter-group comparisons did not show any statistically

significant difference between the groups at the end of the six month training period.

The anthropometric parameters of police personnel are given in table 8. The weight,

height and BMI of the yoga groups were comparable at the beginning of the study. There

was no significant change in these parameters at the end of six months of training period.

Resting cardiovascular parameters: The resting cardiovascular parameters of the

school children are given in Table 1. Before the training, cardiovascular values of all the

four groups were comparable. Pranayam training produced a significant decrease (p<

0.01) in HR whereas the change in other groups was statistically insignificant. In general,

there was a tendency for decrease in SP in all the groups. However this decrease was

significant only in asan-pranayam group. This is similar to the finding of Vijaylakshmi et

al (2004) and Madanmohan et al (2004) who have used a combination of asan and

pranayam training in their works. This decrease in SP can be attributed to improved

baroreflex sensitivity and attenuated sympathetic and renin-angiotensin activity

(Selvamurthy et al 1998). The decrease of SP in our subjects can also be explained on the

14

basis of better relaxation as a result of yoga training. The significant decrease of SP in

controls cannot be explained on the basis of the present study. There was a significant

decrease of DP and MP in asan-pranayam group. The fall in resting DP and MP after

training period was more significant (p< 0.05) in the asan-pranayam group as compared

to the decrease in the pranayam group. This can be explained on the basis of decreased

peripheral resistance as a result of decreased sympathetic outflow. RPP showed a

significant decrease (p < 0.01) in pranayam group whereas in other groups, it decreased

insignificantly. A decrease in RPP indicates a decrease in oxygen consumption and load

on the myocardium (Gobel et al, 1978). Our study shows that pranayam training

involving slow and rhythmic breathing is effective in decreasing HR, BP and RPP, which

indicates better relaxation and decreased load on the heart. The BP-lowering effect of the

pranayam training is augmented by combination with asan training.

The resting cardiovascular parameters of police personnel are given in table 8. At the

beginning of the study, all the four groups were comparable. After pranayam training

there was a significant (p < 0.05) fall in resting SP and DP compared to pre-training

values. This is in contrast to the finding of Udupa et al (1975) who have reported no

changes in BP after pranayam training. In the asan - pranayam group also there was a

significant (p < 0.05) fall in resting DP and an appreciable but insignificant decrease in

RPP compared to the pre-training values. The control subjects also showed a statistically

significant (p < 0.05) decrease in resting SP.

Autonomic function: The effect of training on autonomic function of the school

children is given in tables 2, 3 and 4. Isometric handgrip produced an appreciable rise in

HR and BP in all the groups. After six months of the study period, the increase in these

parameters was more in the control group. However, the difference between pre and post

recordings was statistically insignificant. In the asan group, training produced an

attenuation of HR and BP response to the isometric handgrip. However, the difference

between pre and post training values was statistically insignificant. In the pranayam and

asan-pranayam groups also there was a handgrip - induced rise in these parameters at the

end of six months training period. This increase was statistically significant (p < 0.05) for

SP in pranayam group and HR in the asan-pranayam group. Intergroup comparison

revealed a statistically significant (p < 0.05) difference between the HR response in asan-

15

pranayam and pranayam groups. Our finding is consistent with Vijaylakshmi et al (2004)

who have concluded that yoga training optimizes sympathetic response to IHG and

restores autonomic regulatory reflex mechanism.

All four groups showed an increase in RRIV, HRVdb and VR and a decrease in S: L

heart rate ratio at the end of the six month study period (Table 3). The post-training

increase in RRIV was relatively more in the pranayam group but it didn’t reach the level

of statistical significance. The rise in HRVdb was similar in all groups. The decrease in

S: L heart rate ratio was statistically significant (p < 0.01) in asan and control groups. VR

showed a significant rise in asan (p< 0.05), asan-pranayam (p< 0.05) and control groups

(p< 0.01). A significant decrease in S: L heart rate ratio and a concomitant significant

increase in VR indicate a better autonomic regulation of cardiovascular function. All the

three yoga groups showed an increase in the first minute PP response to orthostasis at the

end of the training period, which was significant (p < 0.05) in the pranayam group. In

contrast, standing produced a significant (p< 0.05) decrease in the PP response in the

control group. The SP response to orthostasis at the end of 2 minutes showed a significant

increase (p< 0.01) in the asan-pranayam group. The DP response at the end of the study

period was appreciably lower in the asan and asan- pranayam groups as compared to the

DP response in the control group, which was significantly higher at the end of the study

period. PP response after 2 minutes orthostasis was significantly (p< 0.05) higher in the

asan-pranayam group. The attenuated DP response to orthostasis after yoga training can

be explained on the basis of a decreased sympathetic response to orthostasis. This

indicates a better ability to respond to orthostatic stress after yoga training. Post-training

increase in PP and SP response to orthostasis indicates improved pumping ability of the

heart.

The results of cardiovascular autonomic functions of the police trainees are given in

tables 11 – 14. All four groups were comparable at baseline in terms of HR, BP and HRV

indices during supine rest, HR, BP and HRV changes during head-up tilt and HRVdb and

pressor response to sustained isometric handgrip at the beginning of the study. There was

a greater fall in DP immediately after tilt in the asan-pranayam group compared to the

asan group (p < 0.01). The asan-pranayam group showed little change in DP at 2 minutes

after tilt (p< 0.05) as compared to the pranayam group.

16

In the asan group, there was a significant (p< 0.05) increase in LF nu during supine

rest and head-up tilt. The change in mean RR during head-up tilt was significantly greater

(p < 0.05) following training. In the pranayam group, there was a significant (p< 0.05)

decrease in HRVdb, SDNN, CVRRI and a significant (p< 0.002) increase in LF nu

during tilt following training.

Analysis of beat-to-beat variations in RR interval has come to be used as a standard

tool in evaluating autonomic regulation of SA node (Task force report, 1996). In the

time-domain, the standard deviation of normal-to-normal RR intervals (SDNN), i.e., the

square root of variance reflects all cyclic components responsible for HRV during the

period of recording. Spectral analysis tells us how spectral power is distributed as a

function of frequency (Akselrod et al, 1981). High frequency (HF) fluctuations occurring

at a frequency of 150 – 400 mHz quantify respiratory sinus arrhythmia, since this

variability occurs at about the frequency of respiration (normally 250 – 400 mHz). Low

frequency (LF) and HF fluctuations in RR intervals are also commonly expressed in

normalized units (i.e. LF nu and HF nu) by dividing them by the total spectral power

minus power in the VLF range. LF nu and HF nu are held as markers of sympathetic and

parasympathetic effects respectively and the LF/HF ratio has been used as a non-invasive

index of sympathovagal balance (Akselrod et al, 1981, Malliani et al, 1991, Task Force

Report, 1996).

In this study conducted on healthy police trainees, we did not find a significant change

in resting HR or RPP. The significant increase in LF nu during supine rest in the asan

group suggests an increase in sympathetic modulation of RR intervals. The decrease in

overall HRV in the pranayam group as given by SDNN and HRVdb given a significant

decrease in resting DP is more difficult to explain. Goldberger et al (2001) have

described dissociation between HRV and parasympathetic effects. Briefly, HRV

increases as average HR reduces but eventually HRV reaches a saturation limit. This is

more likely in vigorously trained subjects like our police trainees. In fact, a change in

autonomic failure from sympathetic to vagal predominance has been reported to occur as

a result of strenuous physical training (Iellamo et al, 2002). The inter-individual variation

in pressor responses to tilt is evident and it is therefore obviously difficult to evaluate the

effect of yoga training from a small sample. The much greater increase in heart rate

17

during head-up tilt in the asan group may reflect an increased sensitivity in baroreflex

regulation of HR. The significant increase in LF nu during head-up tilt occurred not only

in the pranayam group but also in control group who were undergoing only police

training. In the police trainees, the post-study period showed an increase in HR, SP, DP

and RPP response to IHG in the control group. This can be attributed to the strenuous

police training schedule that they were undergoing. In contrast to this, all the three yoga

groups showed a lower pressor response to IHG following the six months yoga training,

inspite of the fact that they were also subjected to the same police training.

This beneficial effect of yoga training is well illustrated by the significant (p< 0.05)

diminution of RPP response to IHG in the asan-pranayam group (Table 14). It is evident

from our study that yoga training can be used to effectively combat the stress induced by

intensive police training.

Pulmonary function: The effect of training on pulmonary function of police trainees

is given in tables 9 and 10. In general, training produced an improvement in lung

volumes and capacities measured in the present study. This improvement was statistically

significant (p < 0.05) in FVC as well as FVC % in asan, pranayam as well as asan-

pranayam groups. The improvement in FVC and FVC % in the asan group was

statistically more significant (p < 0.05) than in the pranayam group. In asan-pranayam

group also the improvement in these parameters was more (p < 0.05) than the pranayam

group. Our finding that yoga training improved FVC and FEV1 are consistent with earlier

studies by Bhole et al (1970), Birkel and Edgren (2000), Joshi et al (1992), Makwana et

al (1988) and Yadav and Das (2001). In contrast to these reports, we have studied the

effect of training in asan, pranayam as well as their combination in the present work. Our

finding that asan training in isolation or in combination with pranayam improves FVC

more than pranayam training alone is an interesting finding that needs further

confirmation. IC also showed a highly significant (p < 0.01) increase in our asan group

(Table10). One may expect a better improvement of pulmonary functions by pranayam

training than asan training. However, the present study has shown that the asan

component of the yoga training produces a more significant improvement in these

parameters. The asans practised by our subjects included bakasan, trikonasan,

bhujangasan and matsyasan which induce isometric contraction of chest muscles as well

18

as expansion of the chest wall and lungs. The resultant improvement in respiratory

muscle strength and expansibility of chest wall and lungs can explain the better

improvement of FVC and FVC % in our asan and asan-pranayam groups.

Yoga training produced a statistically significant (p < 0.05) increase in FEV1 and

FEV1 % in all three groups indicating that asan as well as pranayam training separately as

well as in combination produce a significant improvement in these parameters. In

pranayam and asan-pranayam groups, there was an increase in the flow rates that was

statistically insignificant.

Electroencephalogram: In the eyes open EEG of police trainees, there was an

increase in the total integral (power) of all groups (Table 15). In the asan-pranayam

group, the increase in the alpha and theta integral was statistically significant (p<0.05).

On inter-group comparison, delta % was significantly (p<0.05) higher in the asan-

pranayam as compared to the pranayam group. During the eyes closed EEG recordings,

the training-induced increase in total power was more pronounced and statistically

significant (Table 16). Pranayam training-induced increase in total power was statistically

significant (p<0.001) when compared to control group. There was an increase in alpha

and theta integrals in all the three yoga groups, which was statistically significant

(p<0.05) for alpha integral in asan and asan-pranayam groups and theta integral in

pranayam and asan-pranayam groups. The post-training theta integral of the asan and

pranayam groups was significantly (p<0.05) higher as compared to the control group. The

alpha and delta waves signify synchronization of brain potentials. Yoga practice is known

to relax the mind and decrease sympathetic activity, thus resulting in synchronization of

EEG waves. Stancak et al (1991) also have found a relative increase of slower EEG

frequencies and subjective relaxation as a result of pranayam practice.

Motor conduction: In school children, the latency, amplitude and duration of CMAP

and velocity of motor conduction in median and common peroneal nerves were

comparable in all the four study groups at the beginning of the study period. Six-months

of training produced a significant (p<0.05) shortening of standardized distal motor

latency of CMAP in the asan-pranayam group (Table 5). The amplitude of CMAP of

median and common peroneal nerves did not change significantly in any of the yoga

groups. The motor conduction velocity also did not change significantly.

19

In police trainees, the standardized distal motor latency of median nerve reduced

significantly (p<0.05) in asan group at the end of six months training period (Table 17).

In asan-pranayam group also, training produced a significant (p<0.001) reduction in

standardized distal motor latency of median nerve. The amplitude of CMAP and the

conduction velocity of conduction of median nerve did not change significantly after

yoga training in any of the three yoga groups. The decreased motor latency following

yoga training can be attributed to either an increase in conduction velocity or facilitation

of neuromuscular transmission. Since there was no significant change in conduction

velocity in our subjects, it can be presumed that the decrease in latency is due to

improved neuromuscular transmission.

Sensory conduction: In school children, the latency, amplitude and duration of SNAP

and velocity of sensory conduction in median and sural nerves were comparable in all the

four study groups at the beginning of the study period (Table 6). In asan-pranayam group,

training produced a significant (p<0.001) reduction in the standardized distal latency of

median nerve. The sensory conduction velocity of median nerve increased significantly

(p<0.001) in asan-pranayam group. In the three yoga groups, amplitude of SNAP did not

show any consistent response to yoga training. In the sural nerve, the distal standardized

latency, amplitude, and duration of SNAP and sensory conduction velocity were not

significantly altered by yoga training in any of the three yoga groups.

In the police trainees, standardized distal latency of median nerve decreased in all the

three yoga groups (Table 17). However, this decrease was statistically insignificant. There

was no significant change in sensory conduction velocity of the median nerve in any of

the yoga groups.

The decreased standardized distal sensory latency can be attributed either to an

increased conduction velocity and/or facilitated neuro-muscular transmission following

yoga training. This needs further investigation. In school children, asan-pranayam

training produced a highly significant (p<0.001) reduction in standardized distal latency

that can be attributed to the associated significant (p<0.001) increase in sensory

conduction velocity (Table 6).

Electromyography: In school children, post-training EMG amplitude of frontalis

muscle showed a significant (p<0.05) reduction in amplitude in asan-pranayam group

20

(Table 7). The EMG amplitude during maximum voluntary contraction of biceps did not

change significantly after training in any of the three groups. In police trainees, the

resting EMG of frontalis muscle decreased in all three yoga groups (Table 17). This

decrease was statistically significant (p<0.01) in pranayam group. On inter-group

comparison by ANOVA, the post-training EMG amplitude of the resting frontalis muscle

in the asana-pranayama group was found to be significantly (p<0.05) lower than the

corresponding value of the asana group. The decrease in resting EMG amplitude can be

explained on the basis of the common observation that yoga practice produces

psychosomatic relaxation. This is consistent with the observation of Blumenstein et al

(1995) that relaxation techniques lead to a decrease in frontalis EMG amplitude. The

maximum EMG during voluntary muscular contraction did not change significantly in

any of three yoga groups after training. This can be explained on the basis of the fact that

maximum EMG during voluntary muscular contraction is proportional to the functional

muscle mass and six months of yoga training of moderate intensity did not increase

muscle mass in our subjects.

Visual evoked potential: In the study of VEP in school children, both latency and

amplitude showed a decrease in all the three yoga groups and an increase in the control

group (Table 7). This increased latency in control group was significant (p<0.05) on the

right side. In the police trainees, there was no change in latency but amplitude showed a

decrease in all three yoga groups and this decrease was significant (p<0.05) in the asan-

pranayam group (Table 18). P100 increased significantly (p<0.01) on the left side in the

asan group. There was no change in P100 in other groups. Since VEP amplitude can be

influenced by a number of variables (Celesia 1992), it cannot be commented upon.

Reaction time studies: The effect of yoga training on RT of the police personnel is

given in table 19. The baseline values of VRT as well as ART were comparable in all the

four groups. In all the groups, ART was shorter than VRT and this is consistent with our

earlier findings (Madanmohan et al, 1984). Yoga training produced a decrease in RT in

all the three groups. This decrease was statistically significant for VRT in asan group,

ART in pranayam group and VRT as well as ART in the asan-pranayam group (P<0.05).

In the control group, there was no significant change in VRT or ART. Red-green

discrimination RT decreased in all the three yoga groups after the six-month training

21

period. This decrease was statistically significant for red and green discriminatory RT in

the asan group (p < 0.001), red discrimination RT for pranayam group (p < 0.05) and

green discrimination RT in the pranayam group (p < 0.001). In contrast to the yoga

group, there was a significant (p <0.05) increase in red as well as green discriminatory

RT in the control group.

A decrease in RT indicates an improved sensorimotor performance and an enhanced

processing ability of the central nervous system. This indicates i) greater arousal and

faster rate of information processing, ii) improved ability to concentrate and less

distractibility (Madanmohan et al, 1992). Yoga is also known to decrease mental

fatigability and increase performance quotient (Udupa, 1972). The present study confirms

that yoga training leads to a significant reduction in visual, auditory as well as

discriminatory RT. Measurement of RT, which is an indirect index of the processing

ability of central nervous system is simple to perform and requires inexpensive apparatus.

Hence, RT can be used as a simple, quantitative, objective and non-invasive method for

monitoring the beneficial effects of yoga training.

22

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The number of subjects as well as parameters measured in this study was large. School

children (n= 48) who were from low socio-economic strata and had low body weight,

showed improvement in physiological functions after 6 months of yoga training. Police

trainees (n=148) also showed beneficial effects of yoga training although they were

undergoing intensive police training and the yoga training was relatively less intense. We

also got the opportunity to conduct many studies as an offshoot of this project and a number

of papers have been published. More than 300 normal students, adults and hospital patients

got an opportunity to receive yoga training / therapy through this project.

In police trainees, asan training of 6 months produced an improvement in pulmonary

function and cardiovascular autonomic regulation. Alpha, theta and total power of EEG

increased as a result of asan training. A shortening of visual reaction time and a decrease in

red - green discriminatory reaction time signifies an improved and faster processing of visual

input.

Pranayam training of 6 months produced a decrease in resting HR, BP and RPP in school

children as well as police trainees. This indicates a better relaxation and decreased load on

the heart. Pulmonary function improved in the police trainees. There was an improvement in

autonomic reflex regulation in response to IHG and orthostasis in school children as well as

police trainees. Police trainees also showed a decrease in resting EMG voltage signifying

better muscular relaxation following pranayam training. Beta, theta and total power of EEG

increased while ART and red-green discriminatory reaction times decreased in the trainees

signifying a more alert state as well as improved central neural processing.

A combination of asan and pranayam training for 6 months produced a decrease in BP in

school children as well as an improvement in lung function of police trainees. There was an

improvement in autonomic regulation of cardiac function as well as in motor and sensory

nerve conduction. Resting EMG voltage decreased in school children signifying a better

muscular relaxation. In police trainees total power of EEG, alpha and theta power as well as

delta % increased while reaction time decreased signifying an alert and yet relaxed state of

the neuro muscular system.

23

RECOMMENDATIONS

The present study has shown that 6 months training in asan, pranayam as well as their

combination is effective in improving the physiological functions of school children as well as

police trainees. Police trainees also showed beneficial effects of yoga training although they

were undergoing intensive police training and the yoga training was relatively less intense.

Hence, we recommend that yoga training be introduced in the school as well as police training

curricula.

24

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22. Makwana K, Khirwadkar N, Gupta HC. Effect of short-term yoga practice on ventilatory function tests. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 1988; 32: 202-208.

23. Malathi A and Damodaran A. Stress due to exams in medical students – Role of yoga. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 1999; 43: 218-224.

24. Malliani, Pagani M, Lombardi F, Cerutti S. Cardiovascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domain. Circulation. 1991; 84: 482 – 492.

25. Raghuraj P, Ramakrishnan AG, Nagendra HR, Telles S. Effect of two selected yogic breathing techniques on heart rate variability. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 1998; 42: 467-472.

26. Selvamurthy W, Sridharan K, Ray US et al. A new physiological approach to control of essential hypertension. Ind J Physiol Pharmacol 1998; 42: 205 – 213.

27. Sneddon J. Cardiovascular autonomic function testing. In: Measurements in Cardiology, Sutton P (Ed). The Parthenon publishing group, Lancashire, 1999: 101 – 112.

28. Stancak A Jr, Kuna M, Srinivas, Dostalek C, Vishnudevananda S. Kapalabhati-yogic cleansing exercise. II.EEG topography analysis. Homeost Health Dis 1991 Dec; 33(4): 182-9

29. Task Force Report: Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Circulation. 1996; 93: 1043 – 1065.

30. Telles S, Nagarathna R, Nagendra HR. Breathing through a particular nostril can alter metabolism and autonomic activities. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 1994; 38:133-137.

31. Udupa KN, Singh H, Settiwar RM. Studies on the effect of some yogic breathing exercises (pranayams) in normal persons. Indian J Med Res 1975; 63: 1062-65.

32. Udupa KN, Singh RH. The scientific basis of yoga. JAMA 1972; 220: 1365.

33. Vijayalakshmi P, Madanmohan, Bhavanani AB, Asmita Patil, Kumar Babu P. Modulation of stress induced by isometric handgrip test in hypertensive patients following yogic relaxation training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2004; 48: 59 – 64.

34. Wallace RK, Benson H, Wilson AF. 1971, A wakeful hypometabolic physiologic state. Am J Physiol. 221: 795-799.

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35. Yadav RK, Das S. Effect of yogic practice on pulmonary functions in young females. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2001; 45: 493-496.

36. Yoga: asanas, pranayama, mudras, kriyas. Chennai, Vivekananda Kendra Prakashan trust 2002.

37. Yogeswar. Textbook of Yoga. Madras, Yoga Centre 1982.

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PAPERS PUBLISHED IN JOURNALS WITH DUE CREDIT TO CCRYN

1. Modulation of cold pressor- induced stress by shavasan in normal adult volunteers. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2002; 46(3): 307-312.

2. Effect of direction of head on heart rate and blood pressure. Yoga Mimamsa 2002; 34 (2): 116-122.

3. Effect of pranayama training on cardiac and autonomic function in normal young adults. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2003; 47(1): 27-33.

4. Acute effect of mukh bhastrika (a bellows breathing) on reaction time. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2003; 47(3): 297-300.

5. Effect of yoga training on handgrip, respiratory pressures and pulmonary function. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2003; 47(4): 387-392.

6. Recent studies on yoga at JIPMER. Yoga Life 2003; 34(6): 3-11.

7. Review of shavasan studies conducted at JIPMER during 2001-02. Yoga Mimamsa 2003; XXXV (1 and 2): 26-34.

8. Modulation of stress induced by isometric handgrip test in hypertensive patients following yogic relaxation training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2004; 48(1): 59-64.

9. Tilt table testing in the diagnostic evaluation of presyncope and syncope : A case series report. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2004; 48(2): 213-218.

10. Effect of six weeks of shavasan training on spectral measures of short term heart rate variability in young healthy volunteers. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2004; 48(3): 370-73.

11. Modulation of cardiovascular response to exercise by yoga training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2004; 48(4): 461-65.

12. A comparative study of the effects of slow and fast pranayams on reaction time and pulmonary function in normal young volunteers. Submitted for publication in Indian J Physiol Pharmacol.

13. Correlation between short-term heart rate variability indices and heart rate, blood pressure indices, pressor reactivity to isometric handgrip in healthy young male subjects. Submitted to Indian J Physiol Pharmacol.

14. A comparative study of the effects of slow and fast Suryanamaskars. Submitted for to Indian J Physiol Pharmacol.

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PAPERS PRESENTED AT CONFERENCES & ABSTRACTS PUBLISHED

1. Effect of yogic breathing exercises on systolic time intervals in normal young adults. Proceedings of the 47th Annual Conference of Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India (APPI). Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 45 (5) 2001.p 117.

2. Effect of direction of head on heart rate and blood pressure during shavasan. Proceedings of the 47th Annual Conference of Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India (APPI). Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 45 (5) 2001.p 60.

3. Modulation of cold pressor- induced stress by shavasan in normal adult volunteers. Yogic Prakritik Jeevan Sandesh. 2002; 2 (2, 3, 4): p 3.

4. Effect of pranayama training on cardiac function in normal young adults. Yogic Prakritik Jeevan Sandesh. 2002; 2 (2, 3, 4): p 4.

5. Effect of mukh bhastrika yogic bellows type breathing) on reaction time. Souvenir and abstracts 23rd Annual Conference of the Indian Association of Biomedical Scientists, JIPMER, Pondicherry, 6th Oct 2002. p 38.

6. Effect of yoga training on pulmonary functions and handgrip endurance. Souvenir and abstracts 23rd Annual Conference of the Indian Association of Biomedical Scientists, JIPMER, Pondicherry, 6th Oct 2002. p 37

7. Effect of suryanamaskar training on pulmonary functions and handgrip endurance. Souvenir and abstracts 23rd Annual Conference of the Indian Association of Biomedical Scientists, JIPMER, Pondicherry, 6th Oct 2002. p 44

8. A comparative study of the effect of slow and fast suryanamaskar training on blood pressure and handgrip endurance. Souvenir and abstracts 23rd Annual Conference of the Indian Association of Biomedical Scientists, JIPMER, Pondicherry, 6th Oct 2002. p 39

9. Effect of shavasan on heart rate variability in normal student volunteers. Souvenir and abstracts 23rd Annual Conference of the Indian Association of Biomedical Scientists, JIPMER, Pondicherry, 6th Oct 2002. p 39

10. Modulation of stress induced by isometric handgrip test in hypertensive patients following yogic relaxation training. Souvenir and abstracts 23rd Annual Conference of the Indian Association of Biomedical Scientists, JIPMER, Pondicherry, 6th Oct 2002. p 37.

11. Modulation of cardiovascular response to exercise stress by yoga training. Proceedings of the 48th Annual Conference of Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India (APPI). Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 46 (5) 2002. p 67.

12. Review of Shavasana studies. Abstracts of 4th International Conference on Yoga Research and Value Education, Kaivalyadhama, Lonavla 2002.

13. Review of Yoga studies at JIPMER. Souvenir of the Annual Conference of Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India (APPI), Pondicherry Branch, Pondicherry, April 2003.

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YOGA TRAINING IMPARTED THROUGH THE CCRYN PROJECT

1. Indra Nagar Govt. Higher Secondary School: 100 students of the 8th, 9th and 10th class studying at Indra Nagar Govt HSS were given yoga training of an hour, three times a week for 6 months. They were trained in basic asans and pranayams and served as volunteers for the present project.

2. Pondicherry Police Trainees: 160 trainees of the Police Training School at Indra Nagar, Pondicherry were recruited for the present project and given training consisting of asans, pranayams and a combination of asan and pranayam for duration of 6 months. These classes were conducted at the Police Training School premises.

3. Pondicherry Police Constables:

Nine batches (20-30 in each batch) of Pondicherry police undergoing refresher courses were given one hour of yoga training three times a week for a duration of two weeks. A general introduction to yoga as well as basic asana and pranayam training was imparted to them.

4. Pondicherry Police Commandos:

A batch of 25 commandos of the Pondicherry police were given yoga training for an hour daily for a duration of two weeks with a general introduction to yoga as well as basic asana and pranayam training.

5. Tagore Arts College:

More than 80 students from the philosophy & psychology department of Tagore Arts College were given three months yoga training for an hour three times a week as part of the project. However due to various factors they were not able to complete the post yoga training recordings.

6. Kendriya Vidyalaya, JIPMER Campus: More than 70 students of Kendriya Vidyalaya School in the JIPMER campus received yoga training as they participated in various studies that were conducted with regard to pranayam and shavasan. This training was for three months and given in the school premises itself.

7. Staff, Students and Patients of JIPMER: More than 200 staff, students and patients of JIPMER were given yoga training and therapy as per their health needs such as hypertension, asthma, diabetes mellitus, cervical spondilitis and lumbago. These classes and therapy sessions consisting of various asans and pranayams were imparted in group as well as individual settings as per the individual needs. Patients of hypertension also participated as volunteers in an intra mural project

8. Hemophilia patients:

25 patients of hemophilia were given yoga training upon a request from the Pondicherry Hemophilia Society. They received special training during a two day residential camp at the youth hostel and then a follow-up session of a class a week for two months.