dr. grace nickerson, dissertation, dr. william allan kritsonis, dissertation chair

8/8/2019 Dr. Grace Nickerson, Dissertation, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Dissertation Chair

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Factors that Impact the Academic Achievement of Minority Students: A Comparison Among

Asian American, African American, and Hispanic Students in Large Urban School Districts

A Dissertation

by

Grace Thomas Nickerson

Submitted to the Graduate SchoolPrairie View A & M University

in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

December 2008

Major Subject: Educational Leadership





A Dissertation by

Grace Thomas Nickerson

Approved as to style and content by:

_____________________________ ___________________________

Dr. William Allan Kritsonis Dr. Douglas Hermond(Dissertation Chair) (Member)

____________________________ ______________________________

Dr. David Herrington Dr. Camille Gibson(Member) (Member)

____________________________ _________________________________

Dr. Lucian Yates, III Dr. William H. Parker

Dean, The Whitlowe R. Green Dean, Graduate School

College of Education



Abstract



(December 2008)

Grace Thomas Nickerson: B.A. University of Texas at Austin

M.Ed. Prairie View A & M University

Dissertation Chair: William Allan Kritsonis, Ph.D.

The purpose of the study was to determine the differences among Asian American,

African American and Hispanic students with respect to parental involvement, frequency of

individual study modes, frequency of group study modes, time spent on homework.

The study aimed to answer the following research questions:

1. How do Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students at selected high

schools compare with respect to self-reported frequency of individual study modes,

frequency of group study modes, time spent doing homework, and parental

involvement?

2. What are the differences when studying English, Math, Science and Social Studies

among Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students with respect to

frequency of individual study modes, frequency of group study modes, time spent

doing homework?

i



The study examined the factors that may have contributed to the academic achievement

of minority students in large urban school districts. The factors included are parental

involvement, frequency of individual study modes, frequency of group study modes, and time

spent on homework.

Data for the study were collected by using a questionnaire instrument to gain insight into

how the above factors may contribute to minority students’ academic success. The participants of

the study were Asian American, African American, and Hispanic students at five high schools

located in southeast Texas. The sample for this study was approximately 713 male and female

high school seniors of Asian American, African American, and Hispanic origin. The results of

the questionnaire were compared with the data from the students’ Exit-Level TAKS passing

rates. To determine which factors may contribute to or hinder the academic achievement of each

minority group. The statistical analysis method of One-Way ANOVA was applied to examine

the factors that may be associated with academic achievement among minority students.

The results in the study determined that there are no statistically significant differences in

the parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes, and

frequency of group study modes among the minority groups, except in the parental involvement

and time spent on homework of Hispanic and African American students. According to the

results of the study, educational leaders can modify policies and standards that are created and

implemented on the state and district levels to accommodate all students. Also, standardized tests

that are used to measure academic achievement can be modified to adequately test all students of

every race and background. Lastly, educational leaders should restructure standardized tests to

ii



prevent educators and districts from teaching students how to take a standardized test, and

instead, allow students to gain an in depth knowledge of all subject areas.

iii



Dedication

I would like to dedicate my research to all students that are struggling to obtain a fruitful

life by way of a sometimes unyielding educational system. There are educators that are

discovering and fighting for ways to enhance the academic achievement among all students to

ensure that the dreams and goals of all children are realized.

I would also like to dedicate my research to all educators that fight for the rights of all

students and their academic achievement. I want to encourage them to continue to fight for

academic achievement for all students, and remember the true reason for education—the

students.

iv



Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge the hard work and endless support of my dissertation chair,

Dr. William Allan Kritsonis. You were always there when I needed you and provided avenues

for me to travel to reach my goals. I am eternally grateful. In addition, I would like to

acknowledge Dr. David Herrington and Dr. Douglas Hermond for sharing their expertise in

statistics. Without the two of you, my study would be incomplete. Thanks Dr. Camille Gibson

for serving on my committee as outside member from the College of Juvenile Justice and

Psychology at PV. A special thanks Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis for your professional expertise.

To my parents, Dr. and Mrs. Carrol and Linda Thomas, your unwavering love and

support guided me to reach this level in my life and career. I will forever admire, love, and

appreciate all that you are, what you have made me, and the legacy that you have begun. The

inspiration that I received throughout my life has come from my sister, Dr. Carol Thomas. I have

always looked up to you and aspired to be as great as you. You have never let me down—Thank

you!

My God-send, my husband, Jeff Nickerson. You have been with me throughout this

entire doctoral journey. Your patience, assistance, humor and unconditional love have kept me

focused and emotionally balanced. I am so blessed to have you in my life.

Lastly, my motivation towards my research and completion is Lyndon Carol Jeannie

Nickerson. The love I have for you, the life and dreams that I want for you to have and

accomplish has been a driving force in my life and studies. Lyndon, I hope that this journey that I

have endured enhances and impacts your life and your thirst for knowledge in a profound

manner.

v



Table of Contents

Page

Abstract.............................................................................................................................................i

Dedication.......................................................................................................................................iv

Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................v

Table of Contents............................................................................................................................vi

List of Tables..................................................................................................................................ix

Chapter I. Introduction ....................................................................................................................1

Background of the Problem.................................................................................................3

Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................................4

Research Questions .............................................................................................................4

Null Hypotheses ..................................................................................................................5

Purpose of the Study ...........................................................................................................6

Significance of the Study.....................................................................................................6

Assumptions ........................................................................................................................7

Limitations of the Study ......................................................................................................8

Definition of Terms .............................................................................................................8

Organization of Study........................................................................................................10

Chapter II. Review of Literature ...................................................................................................11

The Asian Migration .........................................................................................................15

The Model Minority...........................................................................................................16

vi



The Social Factors that Impact Academic Achievement of African American

Students ........................................................................................................................20

The Social Factors that Impact Academic Achievement of Hispanic

Students ........................................................................................................................22

American Education vs. Asian Education.........................................................................24

Parental Involvement.........................................................................................................28

Time Spent on Homework.................................................................................................34

Frequency of Individual Study Modes and Frequency of Group Study Modes. ...............38

Summary.......................................................................................................................40

Chapter III. Methodology..............................................................................................................42

Research Questions............................................................................................................43

Hypotheses.........................................................................................................................43

Research Methodology......................................................................................................44

Research Design.................................................................................................................45

Subjects of the Study.........................................................................................................46

Instrumentation .................................................................................................................47

Validity..............................................................................................................................48

Reliability………………………………………………………………….......................48

Procedure...........................................................................................................................49

Data Collection and Recording .........................................................................................50

Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................50

Summary…………………………………………………………………........................51

vii



Chapter IV. Analysis of Data………………………………………….........................................52

Findings..............................................................................................................................55

Summary............................................................................................................................67

Chapter V. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations ........................................................71

Summary…………………………………………………………………........................71

Summary of Findings...………………………………………………..............................72

Discussion………………………………………………………………..........................75

Recommendations………………………………………………………..........................76

Recommendations for Further Study...…...…...…………………....................................77

Conclusion……………………………………………………………….........................78

References......................................................................................................................................80

Appendix A School District Permission Letters............................................................................88

Appendix B IRB Approval Letter .................................................................................................90

Appendix C Questionnaire Questions............................................................................................93

Appendix D Human Participant Protections Education for Research

Completion Certificate...................................................................................................................98

Vita...............................................................................................................................................100

viii



List of Tables

Table...........................................................................................................................................Page

4.0 2006 – 2007 Demographics Percentages of the Campuses Involved

in the Study.........................................................................................................52

4.1 2007 Exit-Level TAKS Passing Percentages for Each Campus

Involved in the Study .........................................................................................56

4.2 Descriptive Statistics (Compare Means) on Parental Involvement,

Time Spent on Homework, Frequency of Individual Study Modes,

and Frequency of Group Study Modes based Ethnicity and Gender..................57

4.3 One-Way ANOVA On Parental Involvement, Time Spent on

Homework, Frequency of Individual Study Modes, and Frequency

Group Study Modes based on Ethnicity and Gender..........................................58

4.4 One-Way ANOVA (Mean Difference) on Parental Involvement and

Time Spent on Homework based on Ethnicity ..................................................59

4.5 One-Way ANOVA and Compare Means of Parental Involvement

among Ethnic Groups Questionnaire..................................................................60

4.6 One-ANOVA and Compare Means of Time Spent on Homework

among Ethnic Groups Questionnaire .................................................................63

4.7 One-ANOVA and Compare Means of Frequency of Individual Study

Modes among Ethnic Groups Questionnaire .....................................................65

4.8 One-ANOVA and Compare Means of Frequency of Group Study

Modes among Ethnic Groups Questionnaire.....................................................66

ix



Chapter I

Introduction

The educational gap of minorities has been one of the major causes of educational reform

in the United States. Minorities immigrating to the United States come from all areas of the

world, especially from those countries in close proximity or that have historical ties such as

Africa, Mexico, and Asia. A common challenge among these minority groups has been the

struggle to have equal access to educational opportunities in a desegregated environment. From

those experiences, these minorities have deemed getting an education of paramount importance

(Le, 2001). There continues to be a disparity among these minority groups and their White

counterparts causing education to be in constant change and in search for methods of

improvement. Environmental factors play a big part in closing the gap among minorities in

education. There has been a shift in the attitude of both children and parents. Parental

involvement has also decreased, and schools have lost a lot of control in discipline and

instruction to name a few (Wu, 2005).

Asian American students tend to out perform other minorities. The factors that contribute

to this occurrence are debatable. The cultural diversity in American education contributes to the

academic performance of minority students (Chubb, 2002). This occurs because of the various

traditions, values and belief systems that are present in each minority group. Currently in

schools, there are racial separation patterns that seem to reinforce the perception that racial

identity and student performance are linked. This pattern sends a message that because of their

race, they can or cannot do certain things within the school (Noguera, 1999). The study sought to

determine the differences among the Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students

1



2

with respect to self-reported parental involvement, frequency of individual study modes,

frequency of group study modes, and time spent on homework. By looking at these factors,

educational leaders may gain insight on the variance in the academic achievement among those

minority groups.

The study focused on Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students because

they are the most prominent minority groups in the American educational system. Although,

there are many subgroups within each minority group, the study focuses on each minority group

as a whole because the measure of success used in the study focuses on the minority groups as

whole groups. Parental involvement is important to study as an effect on achievement. Students

whose parents were involved in their educational career noted they knew what courses to take to

become eligible for any college. However, students that were unaware of what courses to take to

be eligible for college had very little to no parental involvement (Norguera, 1999). Blacks and

Hispanics are much less likely than Whites to graduate from high school, or acquire a college or

advanced degree (Chubb, 2002). This may due to the lack to parental involvement in the

students’ educational career.

Time spent on homework is another factor investigated in the study. Time spent on

homework is related to academic achievement (Yan, 2005). Minority students and students of

low-economic subgroups have been found to put little effort into schoolwork compared to other

groups (Farkas, 2003). Some minority students, such as Asian American, endure parental-

imposed curfews in terms of time spent on the telephone and going out on the weekends. These

curfews are in place to allow time for academics (Elmasry, 2005).

Frequency of study modes (individual study and group study) are factors of academic



3

achievement because it describes how the student studied and prepared for their academic

pursuits. The study modes used by students may reflect the students’ culture. If one culture

believes in a single person making way for the family, then that person may study by

him/herself. If the culture perpetuates family togetherness and encouragement, then group study

is more likely. This is typical of the Asian culture. Although students may study in groups, not

all groups are productive. Ability grouping, which can be proposed by the teacher,

disproportionately and unfairly places ethnic groups at a disadvantage by reducing their

opportunities to learn. The best study mode used is when students study in groups. Grouping

based on ability is not productive for ethnic cultures (Farkas, 2003).

To bridge the academic gap among minorities, it is important to note the differences

among the minority groups with respect to parental involvement, time spent on homework,

frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes. However,

understanding the culture of the minority groups is the key to understanding what needs to be

done to make students successful.

Background of the Problem

Performance levels among minority groups in the United States are in sharp contrast

across all academic subjects. Asian Americans perform higher than any other minority group and

sometimes above their White counterparts (Malone, 2004). Bridging the achievement gap among

the minority groups and the majority is of great concern in the United States. Determining the

differences among the minority groups is a step toward understanding possible attributes of

disparities in performance levels by ethnicity.



4

Statement of the Problem

Becoming a second-rate economic power house will be the destiny of America unless it

can match the educational performance of its rivals abroad in Asia (Staples, 2005). UNICEF

conducted a study on the effectiveness of educational systems in the world. The United States

ranked 18 out of 24 nations evaluated, with Asian nations ranking in the top three (Wu, 2005).

Asian American students partake in the same American education as their African American and

Hispanic counterparts. There is an achievement gap between Asian Americans, African

Americans, Hispanics and their White counterparts. Discovering the differences among the

minority groups with respect to parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of

individual study modes, and the frequency of group study modes will give educational leaders

insight on how to decrease the academic achievement gap. Therefore, the study describes

regional differences among Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students with

respect to self-reported parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual

study modes, and frequency group study modes. The Trends in International Mathematics and

Science Study have shown that there are vast differences in these areas by ethnicity (Wu, 2005).

Discovering the differences among the minority groups with respect to the factors will give

educational leaders in the United States insight on how to solve American educational problems

in particular, closing the achievement gap.

Research Questions

The study answers the following questions:


schools compare with respect to self-reported parental involvement, time spent on



5

homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study

modes?

2. What are the differences when studying English, Mathematics, Science and Social

Studies among Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students with

respect to self-reported parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency

of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes?

Null Hypotheses

The Null Hypotheses in the study refer to Research questions 1 and 2.

Ho1 – There are no statistically significant differences among Asian American, Hispanic, and

African American students with respect to self-reported parental involvement, time spent

on English homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group

study modes.

(Refers to Research Question 1 and 2)

Ho2 - There are no statistically significant differences among Asian American, Hispanic, and


on Mathematics homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group

study modes.




on Science homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group

study modes.



6




on Social Studies homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of

group study modes.


Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to determine the differences among Asian American,

Hispanic, and African American students with respect to self-reported parental involvement,

time spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency group study

modes. Discovering what may contribute to the disparities in performance between Asian

American, Hispanic, and African American students may assist educational leaders in finding

ways to improve their educational performance. Until a solution has been found to close the

achievement gap on a macro level between Asian American, African American, and Hispanic

students, the gap will continue to exist.

Significance of the Study

Bridging the achievement gap between Asian American, African American, and Hispanic

students has been a well discussed topic within America. Knowledge gained in the study will

identify factors that must be considered in order to effectively bridge the achievement gap

between Asian American, African American, and Hispanic students; thus allowing all students to

adopt the most helpful strategies for studying to result in optimal levels of learning. Students

learning at successful, comparable levels will improve America’s output of productive,



7

marketable individuals. The most important educational challenge for the U.S. is closing the

achievement gaps among the nation’s racial and ethnic groups (Crawford, 2002). The differences

found in the study are important for educational leaders to be knowledgeable of to better serve all

students. Being aware of student behaviors with regard to studying and parental involvement will

enhance educational leaders’ ability to educate minority students and to close the existing

academic achievement gap despite macro influences.

Assumptions

The following assumptions were made:

1. Academic success among minority students is related parental involvement.

2. The frequency of individual study modes, frequency of group study modes, and

time spent on homework will not be as salient as parental involvement.

3. Asian Americans spend more time studying in groups than African American and

Hispanic students.

4. Parental involvement in educational matters is lacking in the African American and

Hispanic communities.

5. The culture and social beliefs of Asian Americans, African Americans, and

Hispanics, gives insight into the educational performance levels of Asian American,

African American, and Hispanic students.

6. Students’ self-reports of Asian American, African American and Hispanic students

are fairly accurate.

7. The method of study performed by students occurs in study groups.



8

Limitations of the Study

1. A possible limitation may exist in the difference of cultures and traditions within

each minority group.

2. Socio-economic status may also be a factor among minority groups regarding

education.

3. Racially and culturally diverse schools may yield different results than

predominately Asian American, African American, and Hispanic schools.

4. The study is limited to urban school districts in Texas.

5. The size of the ethnic groups present in the participating high schools may give

disproportionate results.

6. There may be a difference in academic achievement in minority students in rural

school districts.

7. There may be a difference in the academic achievement in the subgroups of each

minority group involved in the study.

Definition of Terms

For the purposes of the study, the key terms to be used are defined as follows:

Frequency of study modes (group study and individual study)

According to Yan, frequency of study modes explains how often and what methods are

used by students to study. This can include study groups and individual studying (Yan, 2005).

Parental involvement

Parental involvement is the amount of interaction and involvement the parent has in their

children’s education. This ranges from attending school functions, reading to their child, helping



9

with the child’s homework, calling teachers and providing curfews for the children’s academics.

This is a broad area because it can also include talking to other parents about education which

does not involve the student (Yan, 2005).

Time spent on homework

Time on homework is the amount of time spent studying, doing school work, and/or

anything dealing with the student’s education and academic success ( Yan, 2005). In this study, it

is a self-reported measure.

Asian- American

Asian, Asian American or Pacific Islander is a person having origins in any of the

original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, or the Pacific Islands.

This area includes, for example, China, India, Japan, Korea, the Philippine Islands, and Samoa

(The Fort Gordon Equal Opportunity Office, 2007). In the schools represented, most of the Asian

student are Vietnamese, Korean, Indian, Japanese, and Chinese.

African American

Students are referred to as African American when they are of African descent, but are

not Latino or Caucasian (Miranda, 2007).

Hispanic

Students are referred to as Hispanic when they are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban,

Central or South American (Miranda, 2007). In Texas, there are primarily Hispanics from

Mexico, Central America and South America.



10

Success

Success is measured by students’ mastery on the Exit-Level TAKS (Texas Assessment of

Knowledge and Skills) test.

Organization of the Study

The study contains five chapters. Included in Chapter 1 is the introduction, statement of

the problem, research questions, purpose of study, significance of the study, assumptions,

limitations of the study, and the definition of terms. Chapter 2 contains the review of literature.

The methodology is found in Chapter 3. The results are located in Chapter 4. Finally, Chapter 5

has recommendations for further study and a conclusion.



Chapter II

Review of Literature

Before conducting research, it is important to be thoroughly grounded in regional and

ethnic issues related to the education of Asian Americans, African Americans, and Hispanics.

This was achieved through extensive reading and review of minority students in large urban

school districts, their country of origin and cultural history. Being able to demonstrate some

knowledge of reasons that play a role in the success of Asian American, African American, and

Hispanic students assisted in communicating with the participants. Having knowledge of what

may contribute to their success made the questionnaire run smoothly and assisted the respondent

in remembering what truly helped them succeed (Herrington, 1993).

The United States has traditionally been a multicultural society with numerous ethnic

groups and racial minorities (Bhattacharyya, 2000). Known as the land of opportunity, the

United States has become home to many immigrants from different areas of the globe. The

definition of “minority” has expanded to other minority groups besides African American

(Asian, Middle Eastern, South American, etc.) that have immigrated to the United States. Most

of these ethnic groups have one thing in common – they have experienced some sort of struggle

to advance in the world around them. Success in America can be measured in many different

ways; however, for this study, success is measured by students’ Exit-Level TAKS (Texas

Assessment of Knowledge and Skills) scores. In the educational arena, Asian Americans have

emerged as the most successful minority in America. Bhattacharyya (2000) also noted:

The emergence of Asian Americans as an ethnic minority group in the U. S., especially in

education, has been a phenomenal one. Researchers have been perplexed at the academic

11



12

and professional success of Asian Americans as compared to other ethnic minority

groups (2000, p. 2).

Other minority groups have experienced similar struggles and oppression as Asian

Americans. In the Hispanic and African American cultures, hard work and achievement is

stressed somewhat differently from the Asian American culture. The results from the NAEP

(National Assessment of Educational Progress) consistently show a gap between the basic skills

of the average African American or Latino student and those of the typical White or Asian

American. By the twelfth grade, on average, Black students are four years behind those who are

White or Asian. Hispanics do not do much better (Thernstrom, 2003). It is important to

remember that in every group, some students do well in school while others flounder. There are

plenty of White students who are low-performing. In fact, those White students outnumber

African American, and Hispanics. Whites are still 60 % of the nation’s school children, while

Blacks and Latinos combined are less than one-third of school-age children. Nevertheless, it is

important to look at group averages, not simply absolute numbers (Thernstom, 2003).

All Asians, Hispanics and African Americans have immigrated to the United States

whether they voluntarily immigrated or involuntarily immigrated (Ogbu, 1998). While residing

in the United States, all three minority groups experienced some of the same prejudice and

racism. It is a great phenomenon that a minority group has emerged as a high achieving group

that has surpassed a racial group that once oppressed them (1998). Researchers, Laurence

Steinberg and Pedro Noguera (EdSource Online, 1999) have noted what schools can do to

enhance the educational performance of minority students. They recommended the following:

1. Student achievement should be used in constructive ways, not to blame.



13

2. Educators promote a candid discussion about the high rate of parental irresponsibility

in this country and the toll it is taking on our youngster’s lives.

3. Getting the parents of low performing students involved will make a difference.

4. Carefully guide and monitor the course selection of minority students so that they do

not end up with remedial courses that will damage their chances of gaining college

admittance.

5. Having teachers who are particularly skilled in cross-cultural teaching strategies work

with other faculty members.

6. Transforming the debate so that it is less about reforming schools and more about

changing students’ and parents’ attitudes toward school achievement.

7. Insisting that schools expand their efforts to actively draw parents into school and

school programs.

8. Never forgetting that it is student outcomes that matter most if more kids don’t

graduate from high school and go on to college then the school is not really

improving (p. 6).

Asian Americans have succeeded with and without the reforms mentioned above, and many

schools have implemented these suggestions of Steinberg and Noguera. To little avail, the

minorities that attend these reformed schools continue to be low performing.

The inconsistencies in American education are present each school year. The academic

achievement gap among the noted minority groups is an educational crisis. The gap in academic

achievement that is seen today is actually worse than it was 15 years ago. In some minority

groups, family messages do not always match the objectives of the schools. When Black and



14

Hispanics students leave high school barely knowing how to read, their future, and that of the

nation is in jeopardy. Black and Hispanic students are typically academically underachievers, but

innate intelligence is not the explanation. In other places in the country, Hispanic and Asian

students are doing equally well, even though Asian American children are usually the academic

stars (Thernstrom, 2003). Another generation of Black children is drifting through school

without acquiring essential skills and knowledge. Hispanic children are not faring much better.

According to Thernstrom (2003), as these children fare, so fares our nation. When Asian

American students are compared with Black and Hispanic students, the outcome is poor for the

latter. Asian American students fare well when the comparison is made. In most subjects,

Hispanic students at the end of high school do somewhat better than their Black classmates, but

they, too are far behind their White and Asian peers (Therstrom, 2003). Curtis Crawford (2000)

reveals:

Academic disparities among racial groups are unacceptable. The most important

educational challenge for the United States ... is eliminating, once and for all, the still

large educational achievement gaps among the nation’s racial and ethnic groups. This is a

moral and pragmatic imperative, which must be accomplished as quickly as possible (p.

37).

The National Task Force On Minority High Achievement (1999) extends this outlook. It adds a

right to academic equality among racial groups, which if secured, would facilitate racial equality

in earnings and influence. After noting the existence of large racial performance gaps throughout

students’ school careers, the Report, “Reaching the Top” by the College Board (1999), adds the

following points:



15

1. Racial inequalities in academic achievement contribute to racial inequalities in

occupational opportunities and achievements.

2. Black, Latino and Native Americans now are nearly one-third and by 2030 will be

over two-fifths of the U.S. population under age 18.

3. Racial differences in academic achievement can become an increasing source of

social conflict.

4. Without great Black, Latino and Native American academic progress, the institutions

of our society and their leadership cannot be fully integrated.

5. Nor can we draw on the full range of talents in our population.

6. Therefore, the elimination of racial inequalities in academic achievement is a moral

and pragmatic imperative (pp. 1-2).

Nonetheless, eliminating academic disparities in education will afford minority students greater

opportunities to achieve and become successful.

The Asian Migration

Asian Americans first began their journey to the United States in the mid 1800’s. The

Gold rush was beginning in California, and Asians came to America to participate in the gold

rush in hopes of better economic attainment. Many congressional acts, such as the Chinese

Exclusion Act (1882), and the Immigration and Naturalization Act (1952), were put in place by

the national government to control the flow of Asian immigrants. During the 1960s, the only

Asians that were allowed into the United States were those that possessed a professional skill

(Wrigley, 2000). Asians were perceived as a threat to the success of White Americans in the

labor force, and often faced violent antagonism from Whites, because of the professional skill



16

they were expected to have.

It is expected that many immigrants from other nations will be coming to the United

States. Therefore, it is imperative that the United States does something to improve its

educational system to accommodate the many nationalities arriving.

The Model Minority

Asian American students have been known as the model minority because of the

successes they have acquired in education. Often, Asian Americans are switched back and forth

from White to minority in statistics due to their achievement (Crawford, 2000). At the advanced

reading level, Whites and Asians were ahead of Hispanics and Blacks. In proficient reading,

Whites led the minority groups. However, at the advanced math level, Asians were ahead of

Whites (Crawford, 2000, p.38).

Not only are the academic achievement levels higher than other minorities, but Asians

out perform their peers in almost every arena. Lucien Ellington (2001) notes: Recent statistics

indicate that well over 95% of Japanese are literate. Currently, over 95% of Japanese high school

students graduate compared to the 89% of American students (p. 1).

Asian Americans use a lot of what they are taught from their parents and what they

inherit from their culture in their educational endeavors. They are taught to be hard working and

to value education.

Asian Americans have distinct cultural values, such as conformity to authority, respect

for elders, taciturnity, strong social hierarchy, male dominance, and a high emphasis on

learning which are deeply rooted in the Confucian tradition. Asian American parents

encourage their children to be reserved rather than expressive and tend to be more



17

permissive to boys than to girls. They also tend to hold higher educational and

occupational aspirations. Asian American students tend to be passive and nonverbal and

rarely initiate class discussions until they are called on. It is because reticence and

humility are highly valued Asian cultural traits rooted in the Confucian tradition (Park,

2006, p. 78).

In the classroom, Asian American students exhibit what they have learned at home. To their

advantage, the practices that they learn at home are of great use to them.

Asian students usually listen to a teacher’s lecture, take notes copiously, and answer

teachers’ questions. Chinese and Korean students tend to be highly competitive and

individualistic. The Confucian philosophy is very much alive and sets a powerful

interpersonal norm for daily behaviors, attitudes, and practices that demand reflection,

moderation, persistence, humility, obedience to superiors, and stoic response to pain

(Park, 2006, p. 79).

Confucianism is the backbone of the upbringing of Asian American students. Confucius was a

Chinese philosopher and ethical teacher (Kritsonis, 2002). Confucius had a golden rule of treat

others as you would have them treat you. He condemned warfare and the lack of moral

standards.

Confucius’s aim in teaching was to nurture and develop a person so that he might become

someone who would be useful to his state, rather than to produce a scholar belonging to

any one philosophical school. Hence, he taught his pupils to read and to study a wide

variety of books and subjects. Rote memorization was regarded as inadequate form of

learning. His philosophy can be traced through a sequence of actions; the principles of



18

higher education consist in preserving man’s clear character, in giving new life to the

people and in dwelling in perfection or the ultimate good (Kritsonis, 2002, p. 152).

Even though education is supposed to be consistent across the nation, it is not because

states live up to national standards through their own interpretation. This study goes beyond the

educational variance among the states and seeks to find factors that make students from ethnic

groups successful in education. Minorities and Whites approach their education in different ways

because of their upbringing and the other countries in which they were citizens. Douglas Foley

(as cited in Shimahara, 2001) explains:

Voluntary minorities, such as Asian Americans, see the United States as a land of

opportunity compared to their situation back home. They are generally optimistic and

trusting of US society, and work hard in school and in their jobs to succeed.

Consequently, the parents of voluntary immigrants generally hold their youth, not the

schools accountable for school success and failures (Shimahara, 2001, p. 21).

There are opponents of adopting the practices of the “model minority.” Although Asian

American students are successful, Deanna Kuhn (2006) notes that, there are some drawbacks

from mimicking the educational routines in the Asian American culture. Asian parents instill in

their children the belief that academic success leads to family pride, material wealth and social

status, and academic leads to the opposite—shame and disgrace. The disadvantage, however, is

that the relationship is an instrumental one: There is a small connection between the amount of

effort invested in an activity and the outcome of the activity. There is no existence of an inherent

relationship between the two factors stated above. However, there is an inherent relationship and

value within the activity itself. The value found in the activities students engage in will not be



19

realized until students discover the meaning of participating in the activity (Kuhn, 2006). In

addition to the strict parental influence that Asian Americans parents have on their children,

Asian American children also display behaviors that are unfavorable.

Overshadowed by the popular model minority image of Asian American students and

high levels of academic achievement among a portion of this group, their problem behaviors

have often been overlooked in educational as well as research communities (Shrake, 2004).

Educators cannot rely on the model minority stereotypes about Asian Americans. Asian families

can only be learned by getting to know individual Asian parents and families. Educators that do

rely on the model minority stereotype risk doing very little to help those Asian American

students that do not excel in academics (Lee, 2001).

The stereotype of being the model minority hurts at-risk Asian American students.

Contrary to popular belief, the at-risk label is not only used to characterize African American and

Hispanic students. Although Asian-American students make up a small segment of the overall

population, these students continue to be ignored or underserved because of the success of the

entire group. When success of the Asian American group is highlighted, educators and the

general public direct their attention to at-risk students of other ethnicities, forgetting that Asian

American students can also be at-risk (Doan, 2006).

Finding meaning and value in activities in which one is involved is important because

that is when true learning takes place. However, when educating the mass is of primary concern,

adopting the best practices available are more important. Educators should understand that many

Asian parents highly respect teachers and administrators. Therefore, they believe their role is to

follow and listen to the judgments of educators. This can serve as a barrier because these parents



20

may feel that communicating with teachers may be perceived as disrespectful. While Asian

parents emphasize academic content much earlier than in most other American homes, all Asian

children do not do well in academic areas (Lee, 2001). Jane Kim, author of Top of the Class:

Asian Parents Raise High Achievers and How You Can Too, (as cited in Elsmary, 2005) explains

what Asian parents teach their children to enhance their educational success, and highlights the

differences between Asian and American families. Asian parents have the tendency to place

pressure or force their children in one direction. Asian parents can learn something from non-

Asian parents by expressing that their child’s happiness does mean as much as any educational

achievements (Elsmary, 2005).

The Social Factors that Impact Academic Achievement of African American Students

Throughout history, African Americans have endured many years of struggle and

oppression. African Americans in the United States interpret their oppression as methodical and

enduring due to the historical and contemporary experiences with institutionalized discrimination

(slavery, job discrimination, structural disadvantages, and racial discrimination in school) they

have experienced. Consequently, African Americans tend to participate in activities that

challenge common practices of accomplishment and they dismiss the value of obtaining an

education. As a result, they begin to trust their practices of “making it” instead of the construct

and purpose of school and its agents. The theory of “making it” and the distrust of the purpose of

school, stifle their commitment to school and societal norms (Hovart, 2006). Although some

African Americans equate academic success with “acting White,” social scientists confidently

predicted that after the Supreme Court decision, Brown v. Board of Education, 1954, that the

academic gap among minorities would soon be eliminated; however, this did not occur.



21

Academic success of African Americans went from abysmal to merely terrible (Chubb, 2002).

The academic gains in the 1960s, 1970s, and the 1980s have slowed. Educators and the African

American community have not been able to eliminate or significantly reduce the academic

achievement gap between African American, Latino(a), and students that identify themselves as

Asian Americans (Edmund, 2006). African Americans are much more likely to suffer the social

problems that often accompany low income (Chubb, 2002).

Over the years, researchers have debated the causes of the academic achievement of the

African American student. Such causes that have been cited are family, peer groups, culture,

discrimination, heredity, and schooling. Involuntary minorities, those minorities that did not

choose to come to the United States, adopt low school performance as a form of adaptation to

their limited social and economic opportunity in adult life. Another cause that may contribute to

the academic achievement of African Americans, is John Ogbu’s theory of the “burden of acting

white.” Involuntary minorities who were forcefully incorporated into the U. S. tend to attribute

academic success with “whiteness” and thus may reject school success with their own ethnic and

racial identities (Lew, 2006).

Currently, schools and school reforms are boosting the achievement of African American

students to levels nearing those of Whites (Chubb, 2002). Therefore, there are some

improvements, but not enough to close the achievement gap among American students. The

threat of stereotypes plays a major role in the academic achievement of African American

students. Stereotype threat is the knowledge that others may judge one’s performance in terms of

one’s racial background, rather than in terms of one’s individual background. Minority students

may be vulnerable to stereotypes in the domain of academics, because the stereotype surrounding



22

these students concerns a generalized suspicion about their intelligence. The effects of

stereotypes can occur without the stereotyped individual himself or herself believing the

stereotype—he or she simply has to have the knowledge of the stereotype and the knowledge

that others may view him or her through that stereotype. African American students in particular

are likely to experience doubts about their acceptance in educational institutions and such

concerns are likely to be accentuated in academic environments to which high achieving

minority students strive (Bennett, 2004).

If the achievement gap could be reduced, the fortunes of African Americans would not

only be raised, but the social and economic differences that intensify the country’s racial tensions

would also be ameliorated (Chubb, 2002).

The Social Factors that Impact Academic Achievement of Hispanic Students

Hispanic students often experience the same obstacles as African Americans. Typically,

Hispanic students tend to be poorer, attend more segregated schools and live in urban areas.

These students account for the largest population of students served in programs of English-

language acquisition. It would be an error to assume that all Hispanic students have similar needs

or require the same type of education. However, current guidelines and educational practices

mandated for Hispanic students are built on such assumptions and have had the unintended

consequence of damaging the students’ futures, education and otherwise. When lawmakers and

educational leaders remain oblivious to these false assumptions, misinterpretations occur, and

stereotypical thinking prevails (Ramirez, 2005).

Frequent in Hispanic families is the need to support the family. Barabra Sparks (2002)

mentions: Economic necessity of holding down multiple jobs in order to care for one’s family



23

makes it virtually impossible to add educational classes to daily life. Often, no matter how much

one may desire to do so (p. 9).

Other barriers that seem to affect the education of Hispanics include cultural difference

from the dominate society, discrimination, and racism. These factors define the social context of

daily life for the majority of the population who do not belong to the middle class (Sparks,

2002). According to some Hispanic youth, the assumption of their intellectual inferiority is the

most significant obstacle in their academic pursuits (Cammarota, 2006). Abigail Thernstrom

(2003) further explains the academic success of Hispanic students.

It is alarming that Hispanic students that have had at least 12 years of schooling without

developing even the most fundamental skills is alarming. The research conducted by

NAEP’s experts find that between subject to subject comparison (reading, mathematics,

or science), Asian and White students’ differences are on one hand, and Black and

Hispanic student differences are on the other hand. Nearly 40% of Asians in the twelfth

grade rank in the top two categories in reading, while a quarter of Hispanics achieve that

level. In math and science, little more than 3% of Hispanics displayed more than a

“partial mastery” of the knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work

(pp. 16-17).

Another issue that compounds the academic achievement of Hispanic students is the

language barrier. A component of the achievement gap between Hispanic and White students is

certainly limited English proficiency among a significant minority of Hispanic students,

especially those in the first generation. However, studies have shown lower academic attainment

for second- and third- generation Hispanic students, so recent immigration or limited English



24

language proficiency cannot be responsible for the entire gap (Sparks, 2002). Among Hispanics

between the ages of 18 and 25, 48% hold less than a high school credentials (Clark, 2006).

The academic achievement gap among minority students is enhanced by the various

obstacles that African-American and Hispanic students have had to endure. Though educational

leaders may not be able to control external factors that impact the academic achievement of

minority students, the knowledge that they gain about the external factors may assist educational

leaders in improving internal factors (school controlled) based on their knowledge of the internal

factors.

American Education versus Asian Education

In Asian countries, education is a national product. Teachers create the textbooks and

every student takes the same test for achievement levels. All Japanese texts are written and

produced in the private sector; however, the Ministry of Education approves the texts that are

produced. Japanese and American textbooks differ in the areas of textbook content, length, and

classroom utilization. Another way textbooks differ is the content of Japanese textbooks that are

based upon the national curriculum, while most American texts tend to cover a wider array of

topics. The number of pages in the textbooks differ as well. Japanese textbooks typically contain

about half the pages of their American counterparts. Consequently, unlike many American

teachers, almost all Japanese teachers finish their textbooks in an academic year. (Ellington,

2005).

Another difference in education between the U. S. and Asian countries is the schooling

track that students follow. Between 75% and 80% of all Japanese students enroll in university

preparation tracks. Most university-bound students attend separate academic high schools while



25

students who definitely do not plan on higher education attend separate commercial or industrial

high schools. In the United States, students enter secondary schools based on either school

district assignment or personal choice. In Japan, almost all students are admitted to high school

based upon entrance examination performance (Ellington, 2005).

Although Asian students out perform American students, when Chinese students were

asked about their education in China, almost all students involved in a study conducted by Yali

Zhao (2008), resented the exam-oriented system, and they tended to idealize American education

because of the academic pressure and frustration that they experienced in Chinese schools.

Because these students have had to deal with exams and teacher-centered, book-oriented lectures

throughout their school years, these students were longing for the American way of education,

which they believed to be creative, student centered, and full of fun and meaningful hands-on

activities (Zhao, 2008).

In the United States, decisions about education are left to the states; however, the national

government does place standards on education that states must adhere. Brent Staples (2005) of

the New York Times mentions that four years ago, The No Child Left Behind Act was enacted to

put the problem of closing the achievement gap on the national agenda. However, the country

has gotten involved in a dispute about a segment of the law that requires annual testing in the

early grades to ensure that the states are closing the achievement gap. The testing debate

intensified when national math and reading scores showed dismal performance across the board

(2005).

Elaine Wu (2005) further examined the educational ranking of the United States in

relation to Asian nations. She attributes U. S. ranking to the way educational material is



26

delivered to the students. The U. S. accommodates students’ needs and wants. Students in the

United States learn to pass a test, but they do not learn the concepts. Therefore, the only way we

measure how well students do is through testing. Teachers end up teaching how to take the test

and not necessarily the subject matter (2005). Many research reports such as A Nation At Risk

(National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) have been utilized to find the fallacy

in American education. They have found that reform is needed in math and science. If mediocre

educational performance was an intended weapon of an opposing force to be used on America,

America would have considered this an act of war. The United States has allowed poor academic

performance to happen despite the gains in achievement made in the wake of the Sputnik

challenge and the Cold War. Over the years, we have unassembled fundamental support systems

which assisted in making those gains possible. America, in effect, has been committing an act of

thoughtless, one-dimensional educational disarmament (T. H. Bell, Secretary of Education,

National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). When American students are

compared to their peers around the world, American students continuously are out performed by

their peers.

Teaching methods also contribute to success in the educational systems of other

countries, and the failure of the United States’ educational system. Over 15,000 school districts

make curricular decisions that align with their state’s guidelines. Many Americans have begun to

question the curricular diversity of their own system and to consider national standards as a

means of improving U. S. education because they are amazed by Japan’s performance in

mathematics and science. America has tried to imitate the Japanese systems by overemphasizing

its uniformity and equating national curriculum guidelines with national standards (Decoker,



27

2002).

As mentioned before, the curriculum and textbooks used by the nations are vastly

different. This difference is one of the components that is responsible for the lack of achievement

in American schools as far as minorities are concerned. Standards developed by the Mathematics

Achievement Partnership under Achieve Inc. (2001) rely almost entirely on the notion that

curricula in the countries that are outperforming the U. S. cover more complicated material

earlier. It is necessary to consider these curricula and associated textbooks. Many studies have

specifically undertaken international comparisons of these items. The study of A Splintered

Vision (Schmidt, 1997) discovered that the U.S. curriculum is broad but shallow, that we touch

on topics again and again, but never deeply. Germany and Japan, most often cited in this study,

are able to move to more complicated material earlier, because they approach the curriculum in a

narrower, but deeper way. The basic idea is that students are able to gain mastery by

concentrating on a smaller number of topics and then moving on to the next lesson.

In addition, the performance expectations implied in U. S. curricula and textbooks centers

on routine procedures and discrete knowledge, which hampers conceptual understanding

(Schweingruber, 2002). The United Stated focuses on procedure, and we try to teach many topics

fast. Other countries tend to break up and go much more in-depth. They work on the concept, not

just the procedure. Countries that did well in rankings focused on teaching the ideas and taught a

few topics a year. Students will learn what a fraction really is, not just how to add or subtract

them (Wu, 2005).

Another difference is in a particular content area studied in both countries. Diana

Lindman and Kyle Ward express an isolationist tendency within the American social studies



28

curriculum. The U. S. educational system, commonly deal with national and world history from a

political and patriotic perspective, and American students are rarely exposed to various

perspectives in the classroom. Therefore, it is critical that American teachers move students

beyond judgment and toward understanding and that they help them consider other perspectives

(Lindaman, 2004). On the other hand, Chinese students have been greatly exposed to the outside

world, especially to information about the United States. They have gained this exposure

through social studies courses, English courses, media, and personal contact with Americans

(Zhao, 2008).

When comparing the countries’ educational systems, it is apparent that the Asian

educational system aims to cultivate students with a patriotic and collective spirit, and it

encourages students to work hard to achieve their goals in life. The American educational system

tends to emphasize the development of students’ creativity, competitive spirit, and life skills

(Zhao, 2008). The way material is taught in America is apparently making a difference in the

academic achievement in America.

Parental Involvement

Parents of Asian American students believe that it is their responsibility to direct their

children on the path of success. This is their primary concern. They believe that their role in the

education of their children is supplemental to what the school teaches. Asian American parents

view their role as supplementing what the school is doing and filling in the gaps because they are

concerned about the American public school’s general laxness. They understand their

responsibility—to teach the child the skills they believe are needed for the child to successfully

compete and come out ahead. The parents view their responsibility as one of guiding the child



29

through a path that leads to greater chances for success. This guiding reveals itself in a number of

ways—teaching the child to hold a pencil before he entered kindergarten and choosing his

activities carefully. The parents focus the child’s attention on this path, which they refer to as

kwai doe (Siu, 2001).

Kevin Marjoribanks (2005) explains that for elementary students, families that are

academically-oriented have parents that possess high expectations for their children, provide

stimulating educational experiences for their children, understand the importance of school and

are knowledgeable about their child’s school assignments. For high school students,

Marjoribanks mentions that parents that provide a family setting conducive to learning, such as

one that includes conversations about staying in school, praise for academic success, interest in

student academic performance and activities, and high expectations about school achievement.

These elements can promote high student academic achievement.

Research has found the reason why schools are reluctant to involve and reach out to

parents. Some educators believe that minority communities have very little to offer and that

parents only added to the problems already present (Guerra, 2008). According to Donna Mahler,

(as cited in Gregory, 2000) the benefits of involving all parents in meaningful home-school

partnerships is a well-needed and well-understood; however, teachers remain ill-prepared for

involving parents, particularly those who are parents of minority children. Teacher preparation

programs often neglect parent involvement practices producing teachers who lack appropriate

strategies for involving parents in the educational process. One result of this lack of teacher

preparation can be seen in the drop in teacher efforts to involve parents which begin as early as

the second or third grade (Gregory, 2000).



30

The home environment may influence the extent of persistence and achievement of an

individual in any particular endeavor. Parents can promote children’s cognitive development and

academic achievement directly by becoming involved in their children’s educational activities.

Parents not only effect what the child brings to the school setting when he or she begins school

but also can influence how well the child acquires school-related skills throughout the school

years and can influence other behaviors, such as study habits, that are likely to afford the child’s

achievement and attainment (Stewart, 2007).

Strong academic outcomes among middle level and high school students were associated

with communication between parents and school personnel about the child’s schooling and

future plans (Epstein, 2002). Parental involvement is beneficial to students of all ethnic groups

and socio-economic levels. When parents are regularly informed and consulted about important

school issues, they will begin to feel genuinely involved. When parents are asked to participate

in the decision making process about important school policies and procedures, they will more

readily answer the call to be involved. The more involved parents are in their children’s

education, at home and at school, the more successful children will be academically and socially.

It must be understood that these benefits will not just be recognized and appreciated by parents

and students, teachers will also benefit from genuine parent involvement. Teachers report more

positive feelings about their teaching and schools when there is a greater degree of parent

involvement (Gregory, 2000).

Schools have to go above and beyond to regain the participation and involvement of

parents and guardians. It is no longer enough to pass out newsletters to take home, post messages

of involvement on the school’s marquee, or hope for a parent conference. If the schools want



31

improved parental involvement, they have to enact more initiatives to improve parental

involvement. Schools can assist parents in becoming more involved. According to Joyce Epstein

(2002), there are six types of involvement that schools can enact to enhance parental

involvement.

The Six Types of Involvement Model include:

• Parenting. Assisting families with parenting skill, family support, understanding

child and adolescent development and setting home conditions to support learning

at each age and grade level. Assist schools in understanding families’ background,

cultures, and goals for children.

• Communicating. Communicate with families about school programs and student

progress. Create two-way communication channels between school and home.

• Volunteering. Improve recruitment, training, activities and schedules to involve

families as volunteers and as audiences at the school or in other locations. Enable

educators to work with volunteers who support students and the school.

• Learning at Home. Involve families with their children in academic learning at

home, including homework, goal-setting, and other curriculum-related activities.

Encourage teachers to design homework that enables students to share and discuss

interesting tasks.

• Decision Making. Include families as participants in school decisions, governance

and advocacy activities through school councils or improvement teams, committees

and parent organizations.

• Collaborating with Community. Coordinate resources and services for families,



33

gladly assumed the role of teacher after the school day ended” (Elsmary, 2005). Having the

parents involved shows the student that the parent cares about the educational endeavors of their

children and it communicates that parents contribute to the success of their children (Yan, 2005).

Parental involvement has conceptualized as a form of social capital. Social capital is

created from the strength of relationships between adults and children. These relationships may

be especially important to adolescents who often require adult guidance and assistance to

perform important developmental tasks (2005). Family obligation is a form of parental

involvement that includes participating in parent-teacher organizations, attending school

programs, and discussing school topics. This family obligation is related to parents’ intensive

investment in the well-being of the school outcome in particular and the value of education in

general (2005). Educators in America have begun pointing their fingers at parents for the low

achievement of American students. The trend 20 to 30 years ago that advocated students learning

by themselves is long gone. Debra Saunders (1995) discloses:

The newest trend in education “reform” is the inclusion of parental-education programs

involvement in student activities. President Clinton’s Goals 2000 includes an entire

section on “parental assistance.” The movement seeks a new curriculum that urges

parents to be nurturing and uncritical (p. 68).

Good work ethic, dedication, and determination are skills that can be taught by parents. Parents

are the first teachers that a child has, and wealth of knowledge can be gained from parents.

Students may strive to make their parents proud as well as themselves. However, the ingredients

to gain success must be taught, nurtured and refined with growth. Clara C. Parks (2006)

recognizes:



34

In the Hmong culture [largely southeast Asians], parents appear to hold even higher

educational aspirations for their children than the children themselves. Therefore, Hmong

students’ high aspirations appear to come from their parents’ unusually high aspirations

for them which apparently are internalized by the children (p. 13).

In summary, if schools want more parental involvement, they have to be more creative in getting

the attention of parents in order for them to participate.

Time Spent on Homework

Time spent on homework is another component that may explain the academic

achievement and failure of minority groups (Yan, 2005). Time spent on homework may include

reading a book, participating in a project assignment, being involved in school-related activities

or completing class assignments. Research by Steven Ingles (2002) acknowledges that Asians

spend more time on homework outside of school than Blacks, Hispanics and Whites. Black

students study alone for 8 to 10 hours a week. Chinese students study for 14 hours a week. They

tend to work 8 to 10 hours alone and about 4 hours with other students, checking each other’s

answers and their English. Their family members quiz them regularly and they work on

problems kept in a public file in the library. Unlike Black students, they know exactly where they

stand relative to the rest of their classmates (Ingles, 2002). The amount of time dedicated to

school and school work makes a tremendous amount of difference in the success of American

students.

Time spent on homework also includes time spent off task such as watching television

and talking on the telephone. Jayne Freeman (1995) states that the amount of school hours differs

between the United States and Asian nations. Japanese students, for example, spend more days in



35

school and study more hours studying after school. Thus, having more hours of instruction and

practice in a given subject than American students of the same age, the Japanese students

naturally tend to score higher (Freeman, 1995).

Academic achievement obtained by Americans can be a result of the amount of time

students dedicate to their education. According to Morrison Wong and Charles Hirschman

(1986), the comparatively larger number of Asian students receiving high grades may be

partially accounted for by the fact that they report spending a greater number of hours on

homework per week. Asian Americans were more likely to spend 5-10 hours per week on

homework. An interesting, and for some a discouraging feature of contemporary high school

education, is the finding that more Hispanic and African American students and between 1 to 8

% of the Asian students report not doing any homework or spending less than one hour per week

on it (1986). Homework is used as a tool to continue education in the home.

Due to the large amount of time in the home environment, it appears that small disparities

in efficiencies of parental support of academic progress or the direct teaching and simulation in

the “curriculum of the home” can have large effects not only on verbal subjects such as reading

but science and mathematics as well. Homework brings learning to students’ daily lives, and

students are asked to assume more responsibility in arranging their learning environment and in

monitoring their homework activities (Xu, 2004).

Children continue to struggle with distraction in home. Students reported doing

homework with the television on (49%) and even more frequently with a radio or stereo on

(58%). These students feel that the radio or stereo sound enhanced their study experience.

However, they admitted that television was somewhat bothersome. Television and telephone



36

were the two most troublesome homework distractions, mentioned by more half of the students.

Thirty-six to 40% listed additional distractions, including parents siblings coming into and out

the room and teasing and asking questions; noise from vacuum cleaners, washing machines, or

doorbells; and disturbance from radios or stereos. Other distractions include internal distractions

such as mood swings (Xu, 2004).

Doing homework often can create a foundation for developing desirable work habits

since “regardless of the homework’s intellectual content, there is a need to deal with distractions,

and a role for emotional coping, task force, and persistence.” Adolescents still can benefit from

assistance from parents of all socioeconomic backgrounds to help them deal with external and

internal distractions while doing homework (2004).

Measures of curriculum of the home account for as much as 50% of the variance in

school achievement; and school-based home-enrichment programs that encourage parents to

stimulate their children raise achievement as much as a standard deviation, say, from the 50th to

84th percentile (Paschal, 1984). Paschal also asserts that academic achievement depends greatly

on time spent on homework. When time is spent on educational-related material, success is the

greatest among students. Other activities, such as television viewing, talking on the telephone do

not yield success in education.

Extensive classroom research on “time on homework” and international comparisons of

year-round time for study suggest that additional homework might promote U. S.

students’ achievement. Homework represents another area in which schools can intervene

in an effort to raise achievement. Though homework is given in the United States,

American students continue to score lower than students in other countries because they



37

spend less time studying within and outside their school classes. Homework may chiefly

displace discretionary leisure-time television viewing that appears excessive as far as the

promotion of school learning is concerned (Paschel, 1984, p. 97).

With the advancement of technology, it has become more and more difficult for the attention of

students to be focused on achieving. Media reports tell of individuals that have gained success

through entertainment and sports. It is true that one can be successful without the assistance of

school, but only a few are successful without school. Therefore, it is important for schools to

engage students in a way that stresses the importance of education. Engaging students in the

classroom in ways that interests them may assist educators in capturing the attention of students

in their school. Schools have even included these media forms into their classrooms by making

relationships between education and topics in the media. The problem that exists is how students

spend their time when they are out of school. Time is such an important factor in this equation

because if an individual runs out of it, there is nothing left.

John Lofty (1995) explained how students get confused about time and how it can work

against them. Students need to be aware of the time values and practices of academic life, and

that their difficulties accommodating the timescapes of the academy can become good reason for

their failure. Such moves assume political and historic significance as the academy assess

underrepresented student populations segregated along lines of class, ethnicity, and gender. Less

apparent though, is the role of time in constructing these lines. Ordinary identities become visible

typically when students transgress our time codes, for example, by talking during instructional

time or by handing in late work. Less visible to teachers is the source of such transgressions in

students’ ordinary identities, which encompass behaviors relative to how time is used and valued



38

(Lofty, 1995). It is important for educators and families to engrain in the students’ psyche the

importance of education, and how it is the key to success. The time that is invested on academics

will garner significant returns on students’ academic success.

Frequency of Individual Study Modes and Frequency of Group Study Modes

Study modes are also components that may improve success. Many American students in

higher education meet in groups to study and continue to employ education in their conversation

with their peers. In these groups, students will meet with other students that speak a similar

language and discuss their viewpoints on how to complete an assignment. According to Monica

Lambert (2006), study modes are an important component to investigate because,

with the passage of the No Child Left behind Act, academic standards for students have

significantly increased. Never before has it been more important for learners to maximize

the time they spend studying. Although secondary level teachers often assume that all

students have acquired sufficient study skills by the time they reach high school, many

have not (p. 241).

The study practices adopted by learners impacts their achievement in their academics. The way a

student studies determines what knowledge is retained and learned, what concepts are

understood and how a student can apply what is learned. This concept begins at home, and it

continues until the goal is obtained. However, students lack proper, effective study skills that

causes them to fall short of mastery. Schools have begun incorporating study skills lessons into

their curriculum. Study skills are an essential part of independent learning. It is important that

teachers incorporate study skills in their instruction so that all students with or without learning

disabilities acquire these necessary skills (Lambert, 2006).



39

Since study habits, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study

modes are an important part of academic achievement, it is helpful to know what yields the best

results so that students will get the most out of studying. Study habits, frequency of individual

study modes, and frequency of group study modes are needed in the equation of improving the

academic achievement of minority groups.

Robert Slavin (1980) has investigated the types of study modes that yield results of high

academic achievement. He used the study modes of student teams, peer tutoring, and individual

study. Team techniques that involve learning have generally had positive effects on such student

outcomes as academic achievement, mutual attraction among students, and race relations in

desegregated schools (Slavin, 1980). Slavin divided the students in his study into four groups.

Team reward , Group Task focused on 4 to 5 students working together and sat together at all

times. Team Reward, Individual Task focused on team members sitting together, but working

individually; Individual reward, Team Task groups sat by themselves, and came together to work

on assignments. Lastly, Individual Reward, Individual Task , students worked and sat by

themselves. On each of these experimental groups, Slavin employed STAD (Student Teams-

Achievement Divisions) and TGT (Teams-Games Tournament) In his study Slavin found that

group forms of study habits increase academic achievement (1980).

Asian students practice peer tutoring and voluntary homework. The study modes as

described by Gary Decoker (2002) explains the differences study modes of American and Asian

students. He also explains that in addition to in-class instruction, rapid learners can assist those

who are slower or who do not understand the lesson. The fast learners, in turn, benefit from

being placed in the position of clarifying their understanding as they explain and expand the



40

discussion along the lines of the questions raised by the slower students. Homework that is

assigned in the West is not commonly assigned in Japan. In Japan, students are expected to study

independently or to solve practice problems. Rather than follow a teacher-assigned sets of

problems or tasks like what is practiced in the West, it is assumed that students will review the

day’s lesson and anticipate the lesson that will be studied during the next meeting of the class.

Although Japanese students are expected to engage in study after school, many teachers assume

that homework is not an especially effective means for improving students’ academic

achievement (Decoker, 2002).

Similar to studying modes, doing homework is not the most ideal way to spend one’s

time, however, in order to improve academic achievement, this is a must. Not only is it important

to do homework because the teacher required the completion of it, but it is equally important to

spend time studying in various modes to review and practice the content taught in class.

Mastering a lesson in class requires that work is completed outside of class and a sufficient

amount of time is spent on study modes preferred by the student. How a student studies

determines the how much information is retained that will contribute to the students’ academic

achievement.

Summary

The purpose of the study is to determine the difference among Asian American, Hispanic,

and African American students with regard to parental involvement, time spent on homework,

frequency of individual study modes and frequency of group study modes. There are many other

factors that contribute to the academic success of Asian American, African American, and

Hispanic students; however this study is focusing on the three components mentioned above.



41

In conclusion, by determining the differences among Asian American, Hispanic, and

African American students with regard to parental involvement, time spent on homework,

frequency of individual study modes and frequency of group study modes, educational leaders in

this country will have a perspective on how to address certain academic problems in American

education. The educational/learning gap continues to increase between the students of America.

Elaine Wu (2005) explains:

Since education is available to everyone, there’s not a lot of competition in our schools.

Other countries force kids to focus at an earlier age, and there’s more competition to deal

with. It’s basically the teaching system, the values and cultures of a country that underlie

its education system (p. 3).

The United States is a powerful force in the world. However, it will lose its force in the world if

it does not improve its educational ranking in the world. What is more important, U. S. students

will continue to be disadvantaged and outperformed by their peers in other countries until U.S.

educational leaders find a remedy to the variance in academic achievement among minority

groups.



Chapter III

Methodology

Statistics gathered by NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2003)

suggest that some Asian American students are more academically successful than any other

minority group in America. There exists a significant gap between the academic achievement

levels of African American and Hispanic students and the achievement levels of Asian American

students (Gordon, 2006). Some factors that may influence the success or lack thereof of Asian

American, African American, and Hispanic students are frequency of individual study modes,

frequency of group study modes, time spent doing homework and parental involvement.

Gary Decoker (2004) notes that Chinese students also reported liking school more than

their Western counterparts and perceived education as their most pressing task. Test scores

continuously show a gap in the achievement of Asian American, African American, and

Hispanic Students. The problem is that if Asian American, African American, and Hispanic

groups have endured the same type of struggle in their past, what contributes to the difference in

achievement levels and what can be done to close the achievement gap among Asian American,

African American, and Hispanic students.

This study describes differences among Asian American, Hispanic, and African

American students with regard to parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of

individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes; thus, giving educational leaders

insight on what can be done to raise the achievement level of their minority students. Identifying

the factors that may contribute to the achievement gap in minority students and closing it will

allow educators to better serve students needs without resorting to other options that may not

42



43

benefit minority students.

Research Questions

The study sought to answer the following questions:


schools compare with respect to parental involvement, time spent on homework,

frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes?

2. What are the differences when studying English, Math, Science, and Social Studies


frequency of individual study modes, frequency of group study modes and time

spent doing homework?

Hypotheses

H1 – There are statistically significant difference among Asian American, Hispanic, and African

American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on English

homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes.


H2 - There are statistically significant difference among Asian American, Hispanic, and African

American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on Math homework,

frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes. (Refers to

Research Question 1 and 2)


American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on Science




44



American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on Social Studies



The independent variables in research questions 1 and 2 in the study are parental

involvement, time spent on English, Math, Science and Social Studies homework, frequency of

individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes. The dependent variables are

academic achievement of Asian American, African American and Hispanic students. For the

study, the students of the different minority groups were asked about their personal engagement

with each factor tested. Once those responses were collected, they were also compared to note

the differences among Asian American, African American and Hispanic students with respect to

parental involvement, time spent on English Math, Science, and Social Studies homework,

frequency of individual study modes and frequency of group study modes. For research question

2, the independent variables are Asian American, African American and Hispanic students, and

the dependent variables are time and frequency of study modes when studying English,

Mathematics, Science and Social Studies. Students were asked about the time they spent

studying and how they studied each subject area in order to test the hypotheses and answer the

research question.

Research Methodology

A quantitative design was used to determine the difference among Asian American,

Hispanic, and African American students with regard to parental involvement, time spent on



45

homework, frequency of individual study modes and frequency of group study modes. High

school students that were 18 years old and of all ethnic groups completed the questionnaire of the

study; however, the research focused only on those students that are Asian American, African

American, and Hispanic students.

Research Design

The population for the study consisted of 713, 18- year old, high school senior students of

Asian American/ Pacific Islander (N = 20), African American (N = 347), Hispanic (N = 233),

White (N = 105), and Native American (N = 8) decent from five high schools. These schools

were chosen due to their minority population, Texas accountability rating, and proximity. The

students involved in the study completed the same questionnaire.

The questionnaire was used to prompt the respondent to remember the amount of parental

involvement, frequency of individual study modes, frequency of group study modes, and the

time spent on homework they experienced during their schooling as well as other factors that

encouraged them to be academically successful. Twelfth grade senior students that were

involved in the study were students in Advanced Placement, Honors, and Regular social studies

classes.

Closed ended questions on a Likert-type scale questionnaire were used so that the

respondents could reflect upon their past experiences in education, growing up and relating those

experiences to their educational success. The questionnaire took approximately 20 minutes to

complete.

Inferential statistics, utilizing a One-Way ANOVA, was used to note differences among

Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students with regard to parental involvement,



46

time spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study

modes. Finding the differences of the factors among the three minority groups may indicate what

accounts for their academic achievement. Information from the participants’ Exit – Level TAKS

scores was used to determine possible relationships between the factors that may or may not

indicate success of the minority groups.

Subjects of the Study

The five high schools involved in the study were located in southeast Texas in two large

urban school districts. Each high school had between 260-850 seniors. The Executive Director of

Research in the participating school districts gave permission to the researcher to conduct the

questionnaire with the student participants. Principals of the participating high schools decided

how the questionnaire would be conducted at their schools. Some principals gathered all 18 year

old, senior students in one location to complete the questionnaire, while others preferred the

questionnaire be given in their senior English or Social Studies classes. The students were given

an Adolescent Assent form and the questionnaire.

The participants were also told that their participation was voluntary and their identities

would remain unknown. The contents of the Adolescent Assent form was explained to the

participants, they were told that if they would like to participate in the study, they needed to sign

and date the assent form. The target population was Asian American, African American, and

Hispanic students that were high school seniors in five, large urban school districts in a

southeastern city in Texas. Parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of

individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes were factors investigated for the

minority groups of Asian American, African American, and Hispanic. The comparison of the



47

two sets of data (responses from the questionnaire and the TAKS scores) determined if students’

academic achievement were related to the factors.

By looking at the minority groups’ Exit- Level TAKS scores and the responses on the

questionnaire, the investigator looked for differences and correlates between variables and

successful TAKS scores.

Instrumentation

The instrument that was used is a Likert-style questionnaire. The questions were

generated based on the four factors of the study. They were centered on parental involvement,


modes. (APPENDIX C) The questionnaire took into consideration the following in order to

become knowledge about the subjects.

To determine the difference among Asian American, Hispanic, and African American

students with regard to parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual

study modes and frequency of group study modes, the answers from the questionnaire on

parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes, and

frequency of group study modes were ranked from 1-6 (6: having the most influence and 1:

having the least influence). The answers from the questionnaire were then divided based on the

minority groups involved in the study.

Once the answers were ranked and divided among the minority groups studied, that

information was placed in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 13.0 version,

and the inferential statistical method of one-way ANOVA was used to determine the differences

of among Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students with respect to parental



48

involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of

group study modes. Those outcomes were then compared to the minority groups’ TAKS scores

to determine possible relationships between their academic achievement and the factors being

tested.

Validity

A researcher must ensure that his or her research is researching what they intended to

research in order to establish validity. In the current study, validity was obtained by having four

students of different races, Asian American, two African American and Hispanic students in one

of the school districts involved in the study. The questionnaire was piloted to students that are

high school seniors to ensure that the meanings of the questions on the questionnaire are clear

and pertinent to the study, and the answers given by the respondents are the answers needed by

the investigator. The students that participated in the pilot engaged in a conversation with the

researcher about the questionnaire. The terminology used in each question was discussed and

adjusted to the students’ input.

Reliability

The questionnaire used was re-tested once input from the students involved in the pilot

study were incorporated into the questionnaire. When the questionnaire was re-tested with the

input, the students were asked again about the clarity and structure of the questionnaire, to which

they agreed was clear and easily understood due to the layout of the questionnaire and the

terminology used.

To begin, the high school student respondents were asked the same questions on the

questionnaire during one of their school days. The questionnaire was completed on paper to be



49

inputted into SPSS. The students were instructed not to place their name on the questionnaire to

ensure anonymity. Students completed the questionnaire, turned it in, and were not allowed to

complete it again if they had completed it once before. By doing this, all 18 year old, senior

students had the opportunity to be involved in the study because all seniors were required to take

social studies or English class or report to the location specified by their principal.

In addition, the Exit-Level TAKS test is a state-sponsored test that all students have to

take in order to move to the next grade or graduate from high school. The test is a standardized,

achievement test that measures what the student has learned.

Procedure

Investigation on the topic began by doing research on the minority groups involved in the

study. Historical events that took place in each minority group, family upbringing, educational

success, and the factors of educational success were researched. After reviewing the appropriate

and relevant literature, research continued to explore the educational gap among the minority

groups.

Various websites were visited and reviewed. A questionnaire and an Adolescent Assent

form were created, and the questionnaire was piloted to a sample of four Asian American,

African American, and Hispanic high school seniors, corrected and tested again by the sample to

ensure validity and reliability. The valid and reliable questionnaire questions were asked to high

school, 18 year old, seniors of Asian American, African American, and Hispanic cultures. These

individuals attend a high school in a large urban school district in Texas involved in the study.

The result of the pilot noted terminology issues that were resolved with discussion and input

from the student participants to ensure clarity and understanding of the questions. Once the



50

questionnaires were completed, the answers were placed in SPSS to note the differences among

the students. Once the differences were noted, this datum was used to compare minority groups’

passing rate on their Exit-Level TAKS test to determine possible relationships between the

factors being tested and their academic achievement.

By doing this, it was apparent what factors may contribute to or hinder the academic

success of Asian American, African American, and Hispanic students. These factors became the

prescriptions for the other minority groups in order to gain educational excellence.

Data Collection and Recording

To assure confidentiality, the student completing the questionnaire did not have to log-on

to the computer to complete the questionnaire. They were given a paper questionnaire and asked

not to place their names on the document. If the student placed their name on the document, then

those questionnaires were thrown out and not used in the research. The results from the

demographic section of the questionnaire were used to correlate the TAKS scores based on

demographics. For example, African-American students’ answers to the questionnaire were

correlated with African-American students’ Exit-Level TAKS scores. The preface of the

questionnaire included a brief discussion of what the research is about, what the findings are

intended to do and grant confidentiality of the respondent. After the data were collected they

were stored in a secure location in a bank safe deposit box for 7 years. After 7 years, the data will

be destroyed by way of incineration.

Data Analysis

The statistical analysis method of One-Way ANOVA was used to analyze the

information gathered from the respondents’ answers to the questionnaire that dealt with the



51

factors of parental involvement, time spent on homework frequency of individual study modes,

and frequency of group study modes to discover what may determine academic success of Asian

American, African American, and Hispanic students. Each answer was coded with a particular

number (1: Never, 2: Rarely, 3: Sometimes, 4: Often, 5: Very Often, 6: Always) to be entered

into SPSS to determine which factor occurs most often among the minority groups. The Exit-

Level TAKS scores were used to measure and connect success to the respondents’ answers on

the questionnaire.

Summary

The procedure detailed in this chapter establishes differences among Asian American,

African American, Hispanic students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on

homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes. By

determining which factors have the greatest impact for each minority group will establish

guidelines for educational leaders to follow to produce academically successful students.



Chapter IV

Analysis of Data


Hispanic, and African American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on

homework frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes. Through

the use of a questionnaire given to 18 year old, high school seniors, data was collected to

determine which factor, occurred most frequently among the minority groups to determine which

factors are related to the academic achievement among the minority groups. The results of the

questionnaire given to the respondents acknowledged which factors were practiced most

frequently which may explain what impacts the academic achievement of minority students.

The five high schools involved in the study were located in southeast Texas in two large

urban school districts. Each high school had between 260-850 seniors. The results of Asian

American students involved in the study must be viewed in light of the small numbers.

Demographics from campus are detailed in Table 4.0

Table 4.0

2006 – 2007 Campus Demographics Percentages for the Campuses involved in the Study. (TEA

2006 – 2007 AEIS Report)

Campus Asian American African American Hispanic

Campus 1 0.2% 82.7% 14.5%Campus 2 6.0% 35.8% 11.5%

Campus 3 1.5% 90.8% 5.5%Campus 4 2.1% 32.2% 54.1%

Campus 5 0.2% 7.3% 87.1%

52



53

Quantitative data obtained from questionnaire given to 18-year old high school seniors

were used to find if there are differences among the minority groups (Asian American, African

American, and Hispanic) on the basis of parental involvement, time spent on homework,

frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes. Students were asked

to rank (1: Never, 2: Rarely, 3: Sometimes, 4: Often, 5: Very Often, 6: Always) the influences of


frequency of group study modes. In order to determine which factors among the minority groups

that may have had an impact on their academic achievement, standard deviation, mean, and

significance level of p ≤ 0.05 were used to determine if differences existed among Asian

American, African American, and Hispanic students for parental involvement, time pent of


A One-Way ANOVA was utilized to determine if differences existed among the minority

groups regarding the factors being compared. A comparison was done among the minority

groups based on the outcomes of their responses on the questionnaire. Another comparison was

done with the students’ TAKS scores and the results from the questionnaire to note possible

connections between the factors tested and the student academic achievement as measured by the

TAKS Exit-Level test. The significance level used in this study was p ≤ 0.05.

The students’ responses to the questions that pertained to each of the factors were

compiled. Standard deviation was viewed for each question to determine how the responses to

the questions deviated among the minority groups with respect to the factors being tested. The

mean was viewed to see how often students of the ethnic groups chose a particular response to

answer the questionnaire questions. Finally, the significance level was used to determine the



54

statistical significance of the differences among the minority groups with respect to each factor.

The following research questions were generated to determine if the factors being

investigated have any bearing on the academic achievement of Asian American, African

American and Hispanic students by using the students’ state standardized, achievement test

scores (TAKS scores) as a measure of academic achievement.


schools compare with respect to frequency of individual study modes, frequency of

group study modes, time spent doing homework, and parental involvement?

2. What are the differences when studying English, Math, Science and Social Studies

among Asian American, Hispanic, and African students with respect to frequency

of individual study modes, frequency of group study modes, time spent doing

homework?

The respondents from the selected urban high schools rated the influence of each questionnaire

question that pertained to the factors of parental involvement, time spent on homework,

frequency of individual study modes and frequency of group study modes. The self-reported

information is valid due to source from which it comes. Since the answers were taken from the

students first-hand, the responses to the questionnaire are valid and reliable.

To analyze the quantitative data, the following weights were given to the ratings of each

question on the questionnaire that the student respondents answered: 6 for “always”, 5 for “very

often”, 4 for “often”, 3 for “sometimes”, 2 for “rarely”, 1 for “never”. Computations for the

means were based on these assigned values.

The impact of the factors on the students’ academic achievement was determined by the



55

results from the responses to the questionnaire questions by the student respondents. A frequency

table displayed how many students from each ethnic group participated in the study, and how

often the ratings occurred for each question that pertained to each factor.

Findings

The ratings given by the student respondents for each factor, parental involvement, time

spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes,

were inputted into SPSS version 13.0, and the mean, standard deviation and significant levels

were computed for each question by ethnic groups, Asian/Pacific Islander, African American,

Hispanic, and Native American. A one-way ANOVA was used to compute the difference among

the ethnic groups with respect to the factors being tested. An analysis was conducted and

decisions were made whether to not reject or reject the null hypothesis for each comparison of

the significance levels. The questions on the questionnaire that pertained to parental

involvement, time spent on homework, individual study modes and group study modes were

created based on the research in Chapter II. Students were asked eight parental involvement

questions, six time on task questions, four individual study modes and four group study modes

questions that may have influenced their academic achievement based on the student

respondents’ ratings. The ratings were compiled and the results of the subsequent computations

for the mean, standard deviations and one-way ANOVA are located in Tables 4.2 – 4.8.

The TAKS scores used in the study are the 2007 Exit-Level TAKS scores. The

participants in the study took this test their junior year of high school. Therefore, the scores used

in the study, are the scores of the participants in the study. The minority groups (Asian

American, Hispanic and African American) and the campus score are focused on in the



56

following table (Table 4.1). The TAKS scores indicate the different success levels among the

minority groups and campus involved in the study. This is displayed in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1

2007 Exit-Level TAKS passing percentages for each campus involved in the study.(TEA AEIS Report, 2006 - 2007)

Campus Campus Score Asian American Hispanic AfricanAmerican

Campus 1 44% * 34% 46%

Campus 2 73% 90% 63% 57%Campus 3 56% * 22% 57%Campus 4 62% 84% 59% 59%

Campus 5 57% * 59% 35%

* Indicates results are masked due to small numbers to protect student confidentiality

The campus scores for each campus of predominately minority students, range from 40% to

70%. Depending on the campus, each minority group performed differently. However, Asian

Americans outperformed both Hispanic and African American students. Those campuses that

have reported scores for Asian Americans, have more than a 25% difference between Asian

American, Hispanic and African American student TAKS scores. Those campuses (Campus 2

and Campus 4) that had reported Asian American TAKS scores had highest campus scores

among the five campuses, and the highest Hispanic and African American passing rates.

The total mean for the ratings of the minority groups (Asian Americans, Hispanics and

African Americans) with respect to parental involvement is 25.29, time spent on homework is

9.63, individual study modes is 11.14 and group study mode is 8.22. In Table 4.2, the means

among gender, minority group and the factors tested are shown.



57

Table 4.2

Descriptive Statistics (Compare Means) on Parental involvement, Time Spent on Homework,

Frequency of Individual Study Modes, and Frequency Group Study Modes based on Ethnicityand Gender

_____________________________________________________________________________

_

Factors Gender Asian American Hispanic African

American

Parental

Involvement

Male 27.70 (N=10) 23.62 (N=122) 25.65 (N=146)

Female 20.67 (N=9) 24.06 (N=101) 26.42 (N=177)Total 24.37 (N=19) 23.82 (N=223) 26.08 (N=323)

Time Spent onHomework

(Hours per week)

Male 9.55 (N=11) 9.02 (N=124) 10.14 (N=148)Female 10.33 (N=9) 9.38 (N=100) 9.63 (N=189)

Total 9.90 (N=20) 9.18 (N=224) 9.86

(N= 337)

Frequency of

Individual Study

Modes

Male 12.64 (N=11) 10.24 (N=129) 10.86 (N=152)

Female 11.89 (N=9) 11.24 (N=103) 11.74 (N=193)

Total 12.30 (N=20) 10.76 (N=232) 11.36 (N=345)

Frequency of

Groups StudyModes

Male 8.00 (N=11) 8.05 (N=129) 7.88 (N=152)

Female 12.89 (N=9) 8.73 (N=103) 8.34 (N=193)Total 10.20 (N=20) 8.35 (N=232) 8.12 (N=345)

_____________________________________________________________________________

_

Asian American males and African American females tend to have more parental involvement

than any other gender and minority group pairing. In the area of time spent on homework,

African American males and Asian American females tend to spend more time on their

homework. When the students from the minority groups study, Asian American males and

females study individually most often than any other pairings, even though Asian American

females study most often in groups than individually. Hispanic males study in groups more than



58

any other male groups studied.

When looking at the minority groups with the genders combined, African American

(26.08) students tend to have more parental involvement than Asian American (24.37) and

Hispanic (23.82) students. Asian American (9.90) students also spend more time studying than

any other minority group. When modes of study are considered, Asian Americans tend to study

most often in groups (10.20) and individually (12.30) than Hispanic and African American

students.

Although there are differences in the means of the minority groups, gender and the

factors being tested, it is important to investigate the statistical significance of the factors among

the groups. This statistical significance between groups is detailed in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3

One-Way ANOVA on Parental Involvement, Times Spent on Homework, Frequency of

Individual Study Modes, and Frequency of Group Study Modes

Factors df Sig.

Parental Involvement Between GroupsWithin Groups

Total

2563

565

0.005*

Time Spent onHomework

Between GroupsWithin Groups

Total

2579

581

0.041*

Frequency of

Individual Study

Modes

Between Groups

Within Groups

Total

2

595

597

0.336

Frequency of Group

Study Modes

Between Groups

Within Groups

Total

2

595

597

0.102

*P is significant at the .05 level



59

The statistical significance of the differences were located between Hispanic and African

Americans regarding parental involvement and time spent on homework. The statistical

significance among Asian American, African American and Hispanic students is revealed inTable 4.4.

Table 4.4

One-Way ANOVA (Mean Difference) on Parental Involvement and Time Spent on Homework

based on Ethnicity

Factors Ethnicity Mean Difference Sig.

Parental Involvement Asian American

Hispanic .55 0.78African American -1.72 0.37

HispanicAsian American -0.55 .78

African American -2.26* .001*

Time Spent on

Homework

Asian American

Hispanic 0.72 0.31

African American 0.05 0.70

Hispanic

Asian American -0.72 0.31African American -0.67* 0.01*

*The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

Among the three minority groups, there are no statistically significant differences with respect to

parental involvement, time spent on homework, individual study modes and group study modes.

However, there is a statistically significant difference between Hispanic and African American

students with respect to parental involvement and time spent on homework. The differences that

do exist are very small, and may not have any impact on the academic achievement of the low

performing students. Although there are differences among the factors and the minority groups



60

studied, the amount of parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual

study modes and frequency of group study modes that the students endure are low. Not one

minority group has a significant amount of difference of each factor. Instead, the amount of each

factor, with respect to each minority group, covers the low end of the questionnaire responses.

Tables 4.5 – 4.8 detail this phenomenon. Table 4.5 details the individual questions and the mean,

standard deviation and the significant levels of the students’ responses in the parental

involvement section of the questionnaire by comparing means and using a one-way ANOVA.

Table 4.5

One-Way ANOVA and Comparing Means of Parental Involvement Among Ethnic GroupsQuestionnaire (N=566)

Parental InvolvementQuestions

Ethnicity Mean Std.Deviation

Sig.

How often did your

parents/guardians read to

you when you were a child?

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

African American

3.10

3.04

3.24

1.29

1.35

1.52

0.001

*

In elementary, how often

did your parents/guardians

visit the school to assist

teachers and other educators with school-

related activities?


Hispanic

African

American

2.75

3.23

3.38

1.33

1.57

1.60

0.178

How often did your

parents/guardians select

your teachers?


Hispanic

African

American

2.55

1.83

2.15

1.82

1.21

1.42

.011*



61

Table 4.5 continuation

One-Way ANOVA and Comparing Means of Parental Involvement Among Ethnic

Groups Questionnaire (N=566)

Parental Involvement

Questions

Ethnicity Mean Std.

Deviation

Sig.

How often did your

parents/guardians attend

parent conferencesconcerning you with

teachers and other school

officials about somethingnegative?


Hispanic

African

American

2.70

2.74

3.00

1.72

1.58

1.65

.000

How often did your

parents/guardians attend parent conferences

concerning you with

teachers and/or other schoolofficials about something

positive?


Hispanic

AfricanAmerican

3.11

3.21

3.64

1.37

1.56

1.64

.000

How often did your parent/guardians attend academic

or extra-curricular events inwhich you were involved?


Hispanic

African

American

3.75

3.49

3.90

1.83

1.73

1.73

.000

How often did your

parents/guardians impose

time limits on activities thatdid not deal with school

assignments or activities?


Hispanic

African

American

2.75

2.82

2.87

1.55

1.46

1.55

.422

*P is significant at the 0.05 level

In the parental involvement section on the questionnaire, the responses of the Asian Americans,



62

Hispanics, and African American respondents had a mean that was centered around the

responses of “3: sometimes” and “2: rarely.” With this in mind, the parental involvement among

the Asian Americans, Hispanic, and African American students varied slightly. However, there

is a statistically significant difference between Hispanic and African American students with

respect to parental involvement. For some questions, each minority group reported more parental

involvement in some questions more frequently than the others. Nonetheless, parental

involvement among minority groups does not differ by much.

In Table 4.6, Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students reported not

having spent much time studying homework in their core subject areas of English, Math,

Science, and Social Studies. There are statistically significant differences between in the area of

time spent on homework; specifically between Hispanic and African American students. All

responses to studying homework had a combined mean that centered around the response of “1:

0-4 hours.” The students also reported not having a specified time study or complete work.

Another, element of this area is that the respondents spend more time participating in activities

that are not school related. These activities could include, watching television or talking on the

telephone. For this question, the mean of the responses by the Asian American, Hispanic, and

African American students was “4: often and 3: sometimes.” In Table 4.6, the mean, standard

deviation and the significance level of the respondents’ answers to the Time Spent on Homework

section of the questionnaire are exhibited.

There are small variations in the amount of time minority students spend on homework.

Most of the time they have outside of school is spent doing activities that are non-school related.



63

Table 4.6

One-Way ANOVA and Compare Means of Time Spent on Homework Among Ethnic Groups

Questionnaire (N=582)

Time Spent on Homework Questions


Sig.

Did you have a specified timeto study or complete

homework?

Asian/PacificIslander

Hispanic

African

American

1.65

1.63

1.70

0.48

0.48

0.45

0.034*

How many hours per week

do you presently spend doing

English homework?

Asian/Pacific

Islander

Hispanic

AfricanAmerican

1.50

1.31

1.40

0.68

0.67

0.83

0.078*


do you presently spend doingMath homework?

Asian/Pacific

Islander

Hispanic

African

American

1.40

1.45

1.43

0.75

0.83

0.92

0.014*


do you presently spend doing

Science homework?

Asian/Pacific

Islander

Hispanic

AfricanAmerican

1.30

1.33

1.37

0.65

0.74

0.87

0.170



64

Table 4.6 continuation

One-Way ANOVA and Compare Means of Time Spent on Homework Among Ethnic


Time Spent on Homework

Questions

Ethnicity Mean Std,

Deviation

Sig.


do you presently spend doingSocial Studies homework?

Asian/Pacific

Islander

Hispanic

African

American

1.55

1.37

1.48

0.94

0.85

1.02

0.210

How often did you participate

in activities that were not

school related?

Asian/Pacific

Islander

Hispanic

African

American

4.15

3.78

4.17

1.42

1.55

1.58

.000*


Considering the fact that Asian American, Hispanic and African American students spent

between 0-4 hours studying English, Math, Science and Social Studies, it is important to know

how they study. Table 4.7 and 4.8 explain how frequently Asian American, Hispanic, and

African American students study individually or in groups for each core subject area—English,

Math, Science and Social Studies.



65

Table 4.7

One-Way ANOVA and Compare Means of Frequency of Individual Study Modes Among Ethnic


Frequency of IndividualStudy Modes Questions


Sig.

How frequently do youstudy English alone?

Asian/PacificIslander

Hispanic

African

American

2.90

2.77

2.99

1.48

1.52

1.75

0.304

How frequently do you

study Math alone?

Asian/Pacific

Islander

Hispanic

AfricanAmerican

3.40

2.78

2.77

1.56

1.60

1.69

0.580

How frequently do you

study Science alone?

Asian/Pacific

Islander

Hispanic

African

American

3.15

2.56

2.69

1.46

1.60

1.64

0.346

How often to do you study

Social Studies alone?

Asian/Pacific

Islander

Hispanic

AfricanAmerican

2.85

2.67

2.90

1.49

1.63

1.76

0.638


When studying each core subject area alone, each minority group reported to studying alone, “2:



66

rarely and 3: sometimes.” There are small differences in what subject the minority groups study

alone. For example, Asian American students study Science and Math alone more often than

English and Social Studies; whereas African Americans study English and Social Studies alone

more often than Science and Math. Hispanic students tend to study English and Math alone more

often than Science and Social Studies. Like the other factors, there may be some differences in

how frequently the minority students study each core subject alone, but the differences continue

to be slight.

Table 4.8

One-Way ANOVA and Compare Means of Frequency of Group Study Modes Among EthnicGroups Questionnaire (N=598)

Frequency of Group StudyMode Questions


Sig.

How often do you study

English in a group?


Hispanic

African

American

2.30

2.11

2.03

1.21

1.24

1.22

0.555

How often do you study Math

in a group?


Hispanic

African

American

3.00

2.24

2.06

1.94

1.39

1.30

0.022*

How often do you study Social

Studies in a group?


Hispanic

African American

2.35

1.96

2.02

1.30

1.18

1.33

0.428

*P is significant at the 0.05 Level.



67

When Asian American, Hispanic and African Americans study each core subject area in groups,

the frequency is similar to the frequency of studying the core subject areas alone. The

respondents mean for each frequency of group study mode question was centered on the

responses of “2: rarely and 3: sometimes.” According to the mean in Tables 4.6 and 4.7, it is

important to note that most minority students prefer studying alone than in groups. However,

when they do study in groups, Asian Americans tend to study the subjects of Math and Science

more often in groups than English and Social Studies, Hispanic students study Math and English

in groups more often than Science and Social Studies, and African Americans study English and

Math in groups more often than Science and Social Studies.

Summary

The study utilized a quantitative design to determine the differences among Asian

American, Hispanic, and African American students with respect to the factors of parental

involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes and frequency of

group study modes. It also sought to acknowledge their academic success on the Texas state

standardize, achievement test (TAKS test) to compare the factors to the academic achievement

among minority groups.

A Likert-type questionnaire that contained 26 questions divided unequally among five

sections, Demographics (4 questions), Parental Involvement (8 questions), Time Spent on

Homework (6 questions), Frequency of Individual Study Modes (4 questions) and Frequency of

Group Study Modes (4 questions). Each question, with the exception of four questions, was

weighted on a 6 point scale: 1: never, 2: rarely, 3: sometimes, 4: often, 5: very often, and 6: very

often. The respondents of the questionnaire consisted of Asian American, Hispanic, African



68

American, White, and Native American 18-year old high school seniors from 5 different urban

high school campuses in the state of Texas. However, the questionnaires of the Asian American,

Hispanic, and African American students were used.

The responses from the 713 questionnaires were inputted SPSS and descriptive statistics

and One-way ANOVAs for each factor and minority group were calculated. The descriptive

statistics identified the differences in means and standard deviation for each factor and minority

group. The one-way ANOVA identified the level of differences that existed among the minority

groups with respect to the factors of parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency

of individual study modes and frequency of group study modes with the significance level of p ≤

0.05. The analysis in the study resulted in not-rejecting the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis

regarding the parental involvement and time spent on homework of Hispanic and African

American students were rejected.

Ho1 – There are no statistically significant differences among Asian American, Hispanic, and


on English homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group

study modes. (Reject—Parental Involvement and Time Spent on English Homework

between Hispanic and African American Students. Not Reject—Frequency of Individual

and Group Study Modes)



on Mathematics homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group

study modes. (Reject—Parental Involvement and Time Spent on Mathematics Homework



69





on Science homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group

study modes. (Reject—Parental Involvement and Time Spent on Science Homework





on Social Studies homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of

group study modes. (Reject—Parental Involvement and Time Spent on Social Studies

Homework between Hispanic and African American Students. Not Reject—Frequency of

Individual and Group Study Modes)

In conclusion, there are no statistically significant differences among Asian American

and Hispanic students as well as Asian American and African American students with respect to

parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes and

frequency of group study modes. There is, however, a statistically significant difference among

Hispanics and African Americans with regard to parental involvement and time spent on

homework. Although there are no statistically significant differences; slight differences exist

among the minority students with respect to the factors tested. For example, according to Table

4.2, African American students have more parental involvement than Hispanic and Asian



70

Americans, but the difference was not significant, Asian Americans tend to study more than

Hispanics and African Americans and each group prefers to study individually; however, the

minority students study each core subject area differently with respect to frequency and modes.

If the minority students’ responses to the questionnaire have any bearing on their academic

success, then the factors tested in the study, parental involvement, time spent on homework,

individual study modes and group study modes, may impact the academic achievement of Asian

American, Hispanic, and African American students.



Chapter V

Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Summary

The study aimed to determine the differences among Asian American, Hispanic, and

African American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on homework,

frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes. Literature suggested

that some Asian American students enjoy academic achievement due to the amount of parental

involvement included their educational career. African Americans and Hispanics, on the other

hand, did not have as much parental involvement; therefore, they suffered academically. Other

factors that the literature explained as having an impact on the academic achievement of Asian

American students were time spent on homework and the frequency in the mode of study.

All three out of the four areas were performed more often by Asian Americans than

Hispanics and African Americans. However, the data showed no statistically significant

difference among the minority with respect to the factors tested; except in the areas of parental

involvement and time spent on homework between Hispanic and African American students.

The research questions that guided this study are:


schools compare with respect to parental involvement, time spent on homework,

frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes?

2. What are the differences when studying English, Math, Science, and Social Studies


frequency of individual study modes, frequency of group study modes and time

71



72

spent doing homework?

Based on the research questions, the following Null Hypotheses were formed:

Ho1 – There are no statistically significant difference among Asian American, Hispanic, and

African American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on English


(Refers to research question 1 and 2)

Ho2 - There are no statistically significant difference among Asian American, Hispanic, and

African American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on Math




African American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on Science




African American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on Social

Studies homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study

modes. (Refers to research question 1 and 2)

Summary of Findings


Hispanic, and African American students with regard to parental involvement, time spent on

homework, frequency of individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes. It is



73

possible that subgroups that exist within each minority group had influence on the outcome of

the study. However, the study focused only on the broad minority groups. In the region of Texas

where this study was conducted, the prominent subgroups are Vietnamese, Chinese, Korean

Japanese, Mexicans, Latin and South Americans, Haitians and Nigerians.

The students’ scores on the TAKS test were used to acknowledge the differences in

academic success among the minority groups. The factors tested in the study may have bearing

on the students’ academic success as shown by the students’ TAKS test scores. Quantitative data

was collected by way of a questionnaire and analyzed using one-way ANOVA to determine the

differences among Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students with respect to


frequency of group study modes.

The results obtained from the questionnaire and completed by the student respondents

indicated that though there are no statistically significant differences in the parental involvement,


modes among the minority groups, there are a statistically significant differences in the parental

involvement and time spent on homework of Hispanic and African American students once a

one-way ANOVA was administered on the data. The students’ TAKS scores indicated a

significant difference in passing rates among the minority groups. Therefore, the results from the

questionnaire may explain the variance in the TAKS scores among the races.

Although the study found that there were no statistically significant difference among the


individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes, there some slight differences as



74

noted in Chapter IV Findings. Due to the findings in Chapter IV, the researcher made the

following conclusions:

1. Asian American students reportedly study Science and Math alone more often than

English and Social Studies; whereas African Americans reportedly study English

and Social Studies alone more often than Science and Math. Hispanic students

reportedly tend to study English and Math alone more often than Science and Social

Studies.

2. When studying in groups, Asian Americans reportedly tend to study the subjects of

Math and Science more often than English and Social Studies, Hispanic students

reportedly study Math and English in groups more often than Science and Social

Studies, and African Americans reportedly study English and Math in groups more

often than Science and Social Studies.

3. Asian American, Hispanic, and African American students reported not having

spent much time studying homework in their core subject areas of English, Math,

Science, and Social Studies. However, most of the time they have outside of school

is spent doing activities that are non-school related.

4. The parental involvement among the Asian Americans, Hispanic, and African

American students varied slightly. However, there is a statistically significant

difference between Hispanic and African American students with respect to

parental involvement.

5. Asian American males and African American females reportedly tend to have more

parental involvement than any other gender and ethnic group relationships.



75

Although as a group, African Americans reportedly have more parental

involvement.

6. Asian American males and females reportedly study individually most often than

any other groupings even though Asian American females study most often in

groups than individually. Hispanic males reportedly study in groups more than any

other male group studied.

Discussion

Based on the research that was conducted, the small differences that do exist among the


individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes, are not enough to determine which

factor impacts the academic achievement of Asian American, Hispanic, and African American

students. The results of the study may be a result of the like socio-economic statuses among the

minority groups. The TAKS passing rates among the minority groups have great variance, and to

determine which factor could have impacted those scores the most would be reduced only to a

guess because the small variance among those factors. The difference in cultural and social

beliefs and values may contribute to or hinder the academic achievement of the minority groups.

The literature mentioned that the Confucianism belief and values that are strong in the Asian

American community may have a strong impact on their drive to succeed. What is unfortunate is

the fact that African American males study more than any other group; however, they continue to

be low-performing. Therefore, other factors may be responsible for the academic success of the

minority groups.



76

Recommendations

The research gathered in this study indicated that there was no statistically significant

difference among Asian American and Hispanic students as well as Asian American and African

American students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of

individual study modes, and frequency of group study modes. There was, however, a statistically

significant differences between Hispanic and African American students with respect to parental

involvement and time spent on homework. It is evident that minority students have similar

influence from the factors. The following are recommendations for individuals involved in the

field of education, such as principals, superintendents, legislators, commissioners, parents, and

foundations that donate money to educational needs:

1. Many students do not know how to study effectively, therefore they do not study.

Teachers may need to implement the use of effective study habits in order for

students to learn content at their optimal level.

2. Even though parents may feel uncomfortable or apprehensive about getting

involved in their child’s school and education, parents need to take an active,

participatory role in the education of their child. When schools attempt to reach out

to parents, parents need to be willing to meet schools half way. A good way for

parents to help out with their child’s education is for them to ask their child to

explain their homework or daily activities at school to them to evaluate their child’s

understanding of what they are learning. Parents also need to keep in mind that it is

their job to raise their children and the school’s job to educate their children.

3. Policies and standards that are created and implemented on the state and district



77

levels need to always accommodate the students and not the interest or agenda of

lobbyists, bureaucrats, or unions. Also when creating state test, the understanding

that not all students are the same need to be taken into account. For example, not

every student comes from homes that are highly educated, two-parent, upper-

middle to upper class that expose their children to items outside their

neighborhoods.

4. When donating money, educational foundations that award grants need to ensure

that the programs that a district is implementing serves an intricate detail in the

education of all students. For example, grants to enhance the teaching and

understanding of a core subject area, attract minorities to core subject areas that

otherwise they would knot approach, such as calculus or anatomy. Districts and

schools need to search and apply for grants that cater to the intricate issues that

affect all of their students.

5. The standardized tests that are used in education need to be modified to adequately

test students of every race, ethnicity and background. The standardized tests should

not be so demanding that educators and districts only teach students how to take

that particular test, and spend money to improve teachers’ ability to teach how to

take a test and students’ ability to take a test.

Recommendations for Further Study

In accordance with the results on the study, the researcher recommends the following for

further study:

1. A study should be conducted to investigate individual test scores to be compared



78

to the impact of parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of

individual study modes and frequency of group study modes on individual students.

2. The study should also include a qualitative component such as interviews to

introduce the importance of cultural and social beliefs and values on minority

students’ education.

3. A study should also be conducted to investigate a difference among minority

groups in urban and rural school districts with respect to parental involvement, time

spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes and frequency of group

study modes with a comparison of cultural and social beliefs and values between

the students enrolled in the urban and suburban school districts.

4. A study should also be conducted to include a qualitative component of parents

and their children and their insight on what impacts the academic achievement of

their child based on parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of

individual study modes, frequency of group study modes, cultural and social beliefs

and values.

Conclusion

In conclusion, according the data, there are no statistically significant differences among

Asian American and Hispanic students as well as Asian American and African American

students with respect to parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual

study modes and frequency of group study modes. There are statistically significant differences

between Hispanic and African American students with respect to parental involvement and time

spent on homework. Although there are no statistically significant differences among Asian



79

American and Hispanic students as well as Asian American and African American students with

respect to parental involvement, time spent on homework, frequency of individual study modes

and frequency of group study modes, Asian American students continue to outperform Hispanic

and African American students academically, according to the TAKS test.



80

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Appendix A



89



90

Appendix B



91



92



93

APPENDIX C



94

What Influenced Your Academic Achievement?

The purpose of this survey is to look at the factors that have influenced your academic

achievement. It will take a few minutes to complete and will be completely confidential. Results

will be compiled and available upon request.

1. What race do you identify?

A. White

B. HispanicC. African American

D. Asian/Pacific Islander

E. Native American

2. What grade are you currently enrolled?

A. 12th gradeB. 11th grade – early graduate

C. 11th grade

D. 10th grade

3. What is your gender?

A. Male

B. Female

4. What class are you completing this questionnaire?

A. GovernmentB. Government Honors

C. Government Advanced Placement

D. EconomicsE. Economics - Honors

F. Economics - Advanced Placement



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Section II. Parental Involvement:

Please circle the response that most closely describes your parents’/guardians’ involvement

in your educational career. (1: Never, 2: Rarely, 3: Sometimes, 4: Often, 5: Very Often,

6: Always)



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Never Rarely

Some-

times Often

Very

Often Always

1. How often did your

parents/guardians read to you when

you were a child? 1 2 3 4 5 62. In elementary, how often did your

parents/guardians visit the school to

assist teachers and other educators

with school-related activities? 1 2 3 4 5 63. How often did your

parents/guardians select your teachers? 1 2 3 4 5 6


parents/guardians assist you with your homework and other school –related

activities? 1 2 3 4 5 65. How often did your

parents/guardians attend parent

conferences concerning you with

teachers and other school officialsabout something negative? 1 2 3 4 5 6


parents/guardians attend parentconferences concerning you with

teachers and/or other school officials

about something positive? 1 2 3 4 5 67. How often did your parent/

guardians attend academic or extra-

curricular events in which you wereinvolved? 1 2 3 4 5 6


parents/guardians impose time limits

on activities that did not deal withschool assignments or activities? 1 2 3 4 5 6

Additional Comments about your Parent's Involvement in your

Education

Part III. Time Spent on Task:

Please circle the response that most closely describes the time you spent on task that impacted

your educational career.

(1: 0-4 hours 2: 5-9 hours 3: 10-14 hours 4: 15-19 hours 5: 20-24 hours, 6: 25 +)



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1. Did you have a specified time to

study or complete homework?

A. YesB. No

0-4

Hours

6-9

Hours

10-14

Hours

15-19

Hours

20-24

Hours

25 +

Hours2. How many hours per week do you

presently spend doing English

homework? 1 2 3 4 5 63. How many hours per week do you

presently spend doing Math

homework? 1 2 3 4 5 64. How many hours per week do you

presently spend doing Sciencehomework? 1 2 3 4 5 65. How many hours per week do you

presently spend doing Social Studies

homework? 1 2 3 4 5 6

6. How often did you participate in

activities that were not school related?

1:

Never

2:

Rarely

3:Som

etimes

4:

Often

5:Very

Often

6:

Always

Part IV. Frequency of Individual Study Modes:

Please circle the response that most closely describes the study modes you used most often that

impacted your educational career.(1: Never, 2: Rarely, 3: Sometimes, 4: Often, 5: Very Often, 6: Always)

Never RarelySome-times Often

VeryOften Always

1. How frequently do you study

English alone? 1 2 3 4 5 62. How frequently do you study Math

alone? 1 2 3 4 5 6

3. How frequently do you study

Science alone? 1 2 3 4 5 64. How often to do you study Social

Studies alone? 1 2 3 4 5 6

Part V. Frequency of Group Study Modes:

Please circle the response that most closely describes the study modes you used most often that

impacted your educational career.

(1: Never, 2: Rarely, 3: Sometimes, 4: Often, 5: Very Often, 6: Always)



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Never Rarely

Some-

times Often

Very

Often Always

5. How often do you study English ina group? 1 2 3 4 5 6

6. How often do you study Math in a

group? 1 2 3 4 5 67. How often do you study Science in

a group? 1 2 3 4 5 6

8. How often do you study Social

Studies in a group? 1 2 3 4 5 6



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Appendix D



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101

Vita

dr. grace nickerson, dissertation, dr. william allan kritsonis, dissertation chair

Documents