Dr. Christopher MorrowUAE University

cmorrow@uaeu.ac.aeiteach.co.nr

How Important is English in Elementary School?

Early English

English is increasingly seen as a vehicle of globalization AND early exposure is often seen as a key to success and a solution to all problems in language educationBUT: it may be perceived as a threat to first language development and identity. DOES it corrupt young children’s minds and threaten their L1 literacy and identity?

Benefits of Multilingualism in Europe

A recent European language policy document states that it is a priority to ensure effective language learning in the kindergarten and

primary school, as in such programs “attitudes towards other languages and cultures are

formed, and the foundations for later language learning are laid” (Commission of the European

Communities, 2003, p. 7).

Benefits of bilingualism

Besides socioaffective and linguistic gains, research on early bilinguals (Bialystok, 2001,

2005) emphasizes that bilingualism is associated with more effective controlled processing in children, as the constant

management of two competing languages enhances executive functions (Bialystok, Craik,

Klein, & Viswanathan, 2004)

A Myriad of Connected Issues

Social, political, economic, cognitive, and psychological factors can affect early language

teaching and learning practicesThe specific costs and benefits of early English

are often hard to isolate.Famous Theory = The Critical Period

Hypothesis

Faulty research conclusions (Marinova-Todd, Marshall, & Snow, 2000)

Researchers have often committed the same blunders as the general public:

misinterpretation of the facts relating to speed of acquisition (underestimating time of exposure)misattribution of age differences in language abilities to neurobiological factors, underemphasis on adults who master L2s to nativelike levels.

Myths that die hard

Earlier is betterMore time studying a language leads to more

successOlder students are slower and ultimately less

successfulMultilingualism confuses children

Comparing Early and Later Starters

Early Starters Less anxiety, less

attention More holistic approach Strong emotional

attachment to the teacher

Greater sensitivity to the sound system

(Nikolov, 2009)

Later Starters

Background knowledge

Higher cognitive ability

Literacy and learning skills

Strategies and analytical skills

Comparing learning processes

Early Learning Relies on memory and

procedural knowledge Benefit from meaning-

focused activities Learn slower, may

achieve more

Later Learning

Relies more on explicit, declarative knowledge

Learn faster, may achieve less

The difference may disappear when early starters reach the same cognitive age as late starters

Final conclusions of Singleton & Ryan (2004) Language Acquisition : The Age Factor

The ‘younger = better’ premise on which the case for the early introduction of L2s tended to be made in the past can no longer be accepted in its simple form. Since length of exposure to an L2 is recognised as an important predictor of L2 success, one would expect students who begin to learn an L2 at elementary level to have a considerable advantage over those who begin later. BUT... This advantage does not show up in currently available research findings

Final conclusions of Singleton, D. M.; Ryan, Lisa. (2004) Language

Acquisition : The Age Factor

Evaluations of early L2 programmes show the lead they confer on those who benefit from

them over those who do is fairly short-lived. Within a few years of FLES (Foreign Language Learning in Elementary School) and non-FLES pupils coming together in the same L2 classes, the latter have all but caught up with the former

in terms of L2 performance.

Final conclusions of Singleton & Ryan (2004) Language Acquisition : The Age Factor

“it is impossible to sustain the claim that the younger L2 learner is in all respects and at all stages more efficient and successful than the

older learner.” Nor does the evidence on the acquisition of L2 phonetic/phonological or basic communicative skills consistently support the hypothesis that

younger learners excel in these particular domains.

Choosing Early or Late Immersion

It is impossible to decide which is better based on existing evidence (Nikolov & Djigunovic, 2006)

BUT- Early start may be preferable more for the way it builds motivation and attitude,

not necessarily for language learning gains,AND Early start is typically associated with

more long-term exposure

Final conclusions of Singleton & Ryan (2004) Language Acquisition : The Age Factor

“It is thus impossible to weigh in an informed fashion the benefits of early L2 instruction against the costs thereof.” The long-term positive effects of early L2 instruction have not yet been firmly established,BUT we can at least rely on there being no negative effects (e.g., on L1 learning) associated with the early introduction of an L2

Canadian Immersion Findings

French Immersion research:(two Romance languages)

One year of immersion starting in 7th grade is equal to three years starting in first grade

(Hakuta & Gould, 1987)

Final conclusions of Singleton & Ryan (2004) Language Acquisition : The Age Factor

Those who favour early instruction must use other arguments,

the benefits of increased exposure to the L2. the desirability of early stimulation generally;the advantage of starting some subjects early in the context of the modern crowded curriculum; the educational merits of early contact with another culture;

Exposure time is crucial

UNDISPUTED: Amount of exposure time per se is the crucial factor in differentiating levels of

language proficiency.NOT: Age when exposure occurs

Croatian project of early FLL (Mihaljević Djigunović & Vilke, 2000)

GOAL: find the optimal starting ageEight-year, tracked over 1,000 first graders (age 6-7)

Intensive exposure approximated conditions available in natural SL contexts.Experimental group: Year 1, Control group: Year 4Experimental group was significantly better at pronunciation, orthography, vocabulary and a C-test (requires implicit knowledge of English).ALSO: Better oral, conversational abilityBUT, not much better at reading or tests that tapped explicit knowledge of the grammatical system

Ultimate Attainment

'Concerning the hypothesis that those who begin learning a second language in childhood

in the long run generally achieve a higher level of proficiency than those who begin later in

life, one can say that there is some good supportive evidence and that there is no

actual counter-evidence' (Singleton, 1989: 137).

Even of few hours a week of early learning may help (Larson-Hall, 2008)

A study of Japanese college-age students controlled for the amount of input:

Contrary to predictions that age only plays a role in naturalistic or immersion environments, the present study found evidence that a younger starting age

makes a modest difference to both phonological and basic morphosyntactic abilities,

BUT advantages only emerged later

Four interacting factors

A More Complete Model (Moyer, 2004)

1)Starting age2)Psychological processing3)Cognitive processing4)Social Processing

Final Warnings of Singleton & Ryan (2004) Language Acquisition : The Age Factor

In order to avoid a negative L2 early learning experience, you need...

appropriate learning materials, teacher training and commitment, positive public attitudes towards the target languageBilingual teachers are better!

The teacher is crucialHungarian students’ attitudes and motivation

(Nikolov, 1999) have shown that the most crucial motivational factors function on the

classroom level: the teacher’s role is extremely important,

intrinsically motivating and cognitively challenging tasks tuned to learners’ age and

level. ALSO Important: Continuity from year to year

(Edelenbos & Kubanek, 2009)

Policy recommendations

• Develop a very clear understanding of the specific goals of early English education

• Assess appropriate outcomes: e.g., comprehension and social interaction

• Allow Arabic in the classroom• Weigh the costs and benefits of delaying

English

English medium instruction• Reach a clear threshold before immersing

students in a content class taught in English• Make sure content teachers understand and

support language learning• Don’t rely on indirect acquisition, teach

language explicitly• Modify materials, tests, instruction• Be patient: allow more time for reaching

language and content goals simultaneously• CLIL = Content Learning Integrated with Language

Competition with Formal Arabic?

Research needed on factors like:Diglossia: Formal Arabic vs. spoken dialectsStudents process formal Arabic as a foreign language (ScienceDaily, 2009)Unvoweled orthographyCompared to English, the Arabic script appears to make heavy demands on the visual-spatial processing of letters, roots, affixes, and short vowels (Abu-Rabia, 2001; Share & Levin, 1999).

References

Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19, 290–303.

DeKeyser, R. M. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22(04), 499–533.

Edelenbos, P., & Kubanek, A. (2009). Early foreign language learning: Published research, good practice and main principles. The Age Factor and Early Language Learning, 39.

Hakuta, K., & Gould, L. J. (1987). Synthesis of research on bilingual education. Educational Leadership, 44(6), 38–45.

Larson-Hall, J. (2008). Weighing the benefits of studying a foreign language at a younger starting age in a minimal input situation. Second Language Research, 24(1), 35 -63.

References

Marinova-Todd, S. H., Marshall, D. B., & Snow, C. E. (2000). Three misconceptions about age and L2 learning. TESOL quarterly, 34(1), 9–34.

Moyer, A. (2004). Age, accent, and experience in second language acquisition: an integrated approach to critical period inquiry. Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Nikolov, M. (2009). The Age Factor and Early Language Learning. Walter de Gruyter.

Nikolov, M., & Djigunovic, J. M. (2006). Recent Research on Age, Second Language Acquisition, and Early Foreign Language Learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 234-260.

Singleton, D. (2001). Age and Second Language Acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 77-89.