GENEVIEVE BRANDENBURG November 2016 Academic Supervisor: Anna Szorenyi | Organisation Contact: Claire Tatyzo
Adelaide University Arts Internship with YWCA Adelaide
YOUNG WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP IN JAPAN Adapting YWCA Adelaide Leadership Programs for a 2017 Pilot Young Women’s Leadership Program for YWCA Tokyo
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4
INTRODUCTION 6
PART ONE: THE YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION (YWCA) 7
YWCA Tokyo 7
YWCA Adelaide 8
YWCA Adelaide and Personal Leadership 9
PART TWO: THE JAPANESE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT 11
A Brief History of the Japanese Women’s Movement: 1868-1950 11
Feminism in Japan Post-1950 12
Current Gender Issues in Japan 13
PART THREE: JAPANESE LEADERSHIP AND WOMEN LEADERS 14
What is Japanese Leadership? 14
Japanese Women Leaders of the 20th and 21st Centuries 15
Perception of Female Japanese Leaders and Barriers to Leadership 18
PART FOUR: YOUNG WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP PROGRAM OUTLINE 19
Limitations 20
Young Women’s Leadership Program Structure 20
Program Parameters 21
Aims and Outcomes 21
PART FIVE: YOUNG WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP PROGRAM CONTENT RECOMMENDATIONS 23
Safe Spaces 23
Education 23
o Women’s Movements 23
o Leadership 24
o Presentation Methods 25
o Interaction Methods 25
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Individual Strengths and Skills 26
o Individual Strengths 26
o Skills 26
Other Recommendations 26
CONCLUSION 28
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES 29
BIBLIOGRAPHY 30
YWCA MATERIALS 33
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
At the time of writing, Genevieve Brandenburg is in her third year of a Bachelor of Arts
majoring in Gender Studies and minoring in Japanese language at the University of Adelaide in
South Australia. She has long had an interest in Japanese culture and women’s issues as
separate topics, and has recently begun to explore combining the two in her academic career.
In undertaking her Honours in Gender Studies in 2017, Genevieve plans to assert herself as an
academic specialising in the intersection of gender studies and Japanese culture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you to: Anna Szorenyi for supervising my project; Miho Fujiwara for collaborating in the
development of this program; Claire Tatyzo, Lisa Gascoigne and the YWCA Adelaide staff for
their continuous help and support; senior lecturer Dr Shoko Yoneyama of Adelaide University
and Mari Toyama and Keiko Koretsune of YWCA Tokyo for the interviews; and Robert Ewers,
Amanda Phillis and the University of Adelaide for the opportunity to partake in the Arts
Internship program.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Key Question
In what ways can YWCA Adelaide’s current women’s leadership programs be adapted
and applied to the content of a pilot young women’s leadership program for YWCA
Tokyo in 2017?
Methodology
Research into women’s leadership in Japan, contemporary social issues, Japanese
understandings of leadership
Interviews with YWCA Adelaide and Tokyo staff
Analysis of YWCA Tokyo, YWCA Adelaide and the latter’s application of personal
leadership in its women’s programs
Summary of YWCA Tokyo’s 2017 Young Women’s Leadership Program Outline
Aims and Objectives
Increase participation and retention of current and future young women volunteers
within YWCA Tokyo
Develop leadership capacity and confidence of current and new young women
volunteers through teaching new skills and developing personal traits
Educate participants about history of Japanese women’s movement, current gender
issues, notable female leaders and feminism from a Japanese feminist perspective
Teach concrete skills such as critical thinking, long- and short-term career management,
and emotional/stress management
Prepare participants to be mentors for the Tokyo YWCA children’s camps
Provide young women with the education and skills to become leaders in their
communities and contribute to improving conditions for women in Japan
Program Parameters
18-22 year old women, with interest in or membership with Tokyo YWCA
Program to run for 6-8 weeks with maximum 20, minimum 10 participants
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Program divided into three sections (Community Engagement, Education, Personal
Strengths and Skills) with 2-3 workshops per section
Workshops once per week, 1.5-2 hours length, covering different topic each week
Workshops to contain range of lecture, guest speakers, personal and group exercises
Summary of YWCA Tokyo’s 2017 Young Women’s Leadership Program Content
Recommendations
Education
Safe spaces
Women’s movement, Japanese women leaders, YWCA history, current gender issues
General leadership theory and personal/group leadership activities
Presentation methods to include informal talks, guest speakers, films/video
Interaction methods to include discussion (as appropriate), personal reflection, group
and individual exercises
Personal Strengths and Skills
Activities to identify and develop personal strengths and skills
Workshops to include career planning, long-term and short-term time management,
financial management, stress/emotional management, assertiveness training
Other Recommendations
Community Engagement section to be informed by YWCA Adelaide programs and
further developed by YWCA Tokyo
Program to be delivered and trialled on YWCA Tokyo staff
Strong evidence base, theoretical approach, concrete learning outcomes
Review and evaluation at completion of pilot program
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INTRODUCTION
The following report was commissioned by the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA)
Adelaide to assist visiting YWCA Tokyo Board Member Miho Fujiwara to learn about Australian
women’s leadership, and to aid her in the creation of a young women’s leadership program for
YWCA Tokyo to be held in 2017.
To this end, the report recommends culturally appropriate content for a pilot young women’s
leadership program (YWLP) to be held at YWCA Tokyo in 2017. Key content recommendations
have been made in consultation with Fujiwara and YWCA Adelaide staff. Research from a range
of Japanese and non-Japanese authors and analysis of contemporary YWCA Adelaide leadership
programs has also been utilised to inform the recommendations. Further information has also
been gained in interviews with Adelaide University Asian Studies senior lecturer Dr Shoko
Yoneyama, and two Japanese staff members of the Tokyo YWCA, Vice General Secretary Mari
Toyama, and Youth Development Program Coordinator Keiko Koretsune.
Encouraging and developing young women’s leadership through a practical program is
important for YWCA Tokyo and Japanese society due to the lack of involvement of women in
Japan’s economy and the strict gender roles that prevent women from reaching their full
potential. In the majority of industries Japanese female leaders are overwhelmed by male
leaders, while those that are leaders in their field are prone to unfair and sexist treatment
(Renshaw 1999). Although improvements have been made in Japanese society through
government legislation and the campaigning of feminist and women’s groups, there are still
many issues that negatively affect Japanese women in contemporary society. By developing
leadership, education, skills and confidence through the YWLP, this program and YWCA Tokyo
endeavours to increase young women’s involvement in their communities, as passionate,
informed leaders working towards the betterment of women and Japanese society.
There are several limitations to this report due to the university course’s guidelines under
which it has been written. Only a brief history of the Japanese women’s movement and
Japanese feminism has been provided, and a basic outline of the most widespread forms of
Japanese leadership. Information on Japanese culture and society is brief and it is
recommended that the reader consults referenced texts for more information. Although a topic
of potential, it was unfortunately outside the scope of this project to pursue an in-depth
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analysis and comparison of Japanese and Western leadership styles outside of the YWCA
Adelaide understanding of personal leadership. Key recommendations have been provided that
focus on education and skills, as well as a brief outline for the Community Engagement section
of the program, and it is acknowledged and encouraged that YWCA Tokyo will further develop
the recommendations provided in this report in the creation of the YWLP.
PART ONE: THE YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION (YWCA)
This section will cover YWCA Tokyo and YWCA Adelaide; their histories, ethos and programs;
and an investigation into YWCA Adelaide’s understanding of personal leadership.
YWCA Tokyo
YWCA Tokyo, home of YWCA Japan, was founded in 1905 by Japanese Christian women with
the assistance of international YWCA missionaries. Throughout the 20th century YWCA Tokyo
focused on the liberation of women, peace and human rights whilst applying Christian
principles. The overarching YWCA Japan now focuses on social and economic justice and
women’s full and equal participation in all levels of society through mobilising women’s
collective power, through development and advocacy programmes, as well as leadership
opportunities and training (YWCA Japan 2016a; YWCA Japan 2016b). YWCA Tokyo, whilst
subscribing to the aims of YWCA Japan, promotes peace, justice, leadership, respect, fellowship
amongst members and human dignity (Koretsune September 2016; Toyama September 2016;
YWCA Tokyo 2016).
YWCA Tokyo is a large organisation with over 100 staff members and volunteers, as well as a
large member base. Programs include Encore (similar to the Adelaide and Australia YWCA
program); kindergarten and after-school programs for children; one-day and week-long camps
for children and teenagers; support for marginalised groups, and a peace advocacy group
(Fujiwara September 2016; Toyama September 2016; YWCA Tokyo 2016). One of the aims of
the YWLP is to train young women to become mentors for the participants of the children’s
camps held by YWCA Tokyo, and given this, this particular activity of YWCA Tokyo will be
further explored.
The YWCA Tokyo holds two types of camps for young people; day camps and week-long camps.
The day camps comprise of both boys and girls aged between 5 and 12, while the week-long
camps are exclusive to girls aged 13-18. Both camps focus on recreational activities such as
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craft, cooking, sport and walking in nature. The week-long camps are held on the outskirts of
Tokyo in campsites while the day camps are often within the city limits. To assist the YWCA staff
with the implementation of the week-long camps, young women join the camps as volunteers
and act as mentors for the camp’s participants.
In conversing with Fujiwara and Koretsune (September 2016), it became clear that there are
several key issues within YWCA Tokyo and the camp program. Primarily, membership and staff
consist of very few young women, with the vast majority of staff and members being over 50
years of age. The young women who volunteer as mentors on the week-long camps are rarely
given comprehensive training for their position, and because of this they usually remain with
the organisation for only 1-2 years. This is an issue that Fujiwara requested be addressed by the
YWLP and as such it will further discussed in the Recommendations section.
YWCA Adelaide
YWCA Adelaide was founded in 1880 and has a long history of helping young women. In the
first half of the 20th century YWCA Adelaide organised an Employment Bureau during the
Depression, housed unemployed girls free of charge, and ran a Sports Department that
provided teams for girls who did not attend private schools and could not join the exclusive
male collegian clubs (YWCA Adelaide 2015b). Over the past century YWCA Adelaide’s
development has been influenced by both the national YWCA Australia and international World
YWCA. Its current vision, purpose and values are as follows:
Vision: Women leading change
Purpose: To build strong and equitable communities through the development of
women’s leadership
Values: Gender equality, diversity, leadership, women’s safety and wellbeing, strong
communities, accountability (YWCA Adelaide 2015h)
YWCA Adelaide runs several programs for women (and men) of varying ages and backgrounds.
Some of these programs include the Every Girl, She Leads, She Leads High, the Aboriginal
Women’s Leadership Program and Encore. While each of these programs differs in their
implementation and contents, they are united through their commitment to women leading
change in their personal and public lives.
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This report and its recommendations primarily utilises content from the Every Girl program and
the She Leads High Program and has been adapted for an older audience. The Every Girl
program, which is also a national YWCA program, is aimed at girls aged 9-14 and delivered in
schools and communities for a period of 8 weeks. It is a strengths-based self esteem program
and aims to address the long-term gender inequality experiences of women in Australia (YWCA
Adelaide 2015a). Over the course of 8 workshops girls learn about strengths, their personal
voice, leadership, community, diversity and human rights, and at the end of the program they
write and present an Every Girl Ambassador declaration (YWCA Australia 2015b pp.81-83.) The
Every Girl program targets girls’ confidence because of the damaging long-term effects poor
self esteem can have (YWCA Australia 2015b p.14).
The She Leads High program, specific to YWCA Adelaide, is similar to that of Every Girl. It is for
girls in grades 10-12 at high school and has a greater focus on building leadership skills in all
areas of their lives. This program coincides with the She Leads High Conference, South
Australia’s only leadership conference for girls (YWCA Adelaide 2015h). Workshop content is
similar to that of the Every Girl program and focuses on the basics of leadership;
communication and emotional intelligence; working in a team and autonomously; envisioning
and influencing the workplace; information on super, tax, saving and housing; and how to be a
leader in your community (YWCA Adelaide 2015d p.3). The She Leads High Program aims to
provide young women with the skills and information they need to be a leader in both their
personal and public lives.
YWCA Adelaide and Personal Leadership
YWCA Australia and by extension YWCA Adelaide’s understanding of leadership is informed by
research, several key concepts, and utilises a feminist analysis throughout. It acknowledges that
dominant forms of Western leadership are of a stereotypically masculine nature and that
women can be leaders in both their private and public lives. Women are also encouraged to use
their personal stories, experiences and identities as leaders and are supported to find and use
their voice in advocacy and community engagement. This understanding of leadership also
raises awareness of how privilege, sexism, misogyny and patriarchy limit women’s leadership
ambitions, and supports a diversity of women to become leaders, including those who are not
white, cis-gendered, heterosexual and/or able-bodied (YWCA Australia 2015a p.8-9).
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The YWCA Adelaide understanding of leadership focuses on strengths-based leadership, in
which individuals are assisted and encouraged to identify their own personal strengths, as well
as those of others, and to utilise those strengths to their advantage. This process develops
participants’ confidence and empathy through understanding of self and of others. Also
prevalent in the strengths-based leadership understanding is traits of transformative and
authentic leadership, which utilises an individual’s strengths, charisma and empathy to gain the
trust and confidence of followers to create a more democratic and communal style of
leadership (Lopez-Zafra & Garcia-Retamero 2010 p.52-3).
In the YWCA Adelaide’s leadership programs participants are invited to discuss what leadership
means to them, as the understanding of leadership varies between individuals. However, there
are common understandings of what constitutes personal leadership and what constitutes
management, as shown in the table below:
MANAGEMENT LEADERSHIP
Processes People
Facts Feelings
Intellectual Emotional
Head Heart
Control Commitment
Doing things right Doing the right things
Rules Values
Goals Vision
Standardisation Innovation
(Source: YWCA Adelaide 2015f p.3)
The ‘Leadership’ list on the right includes qualities that are stereotypically defined as feminine,
such as ‘feelings’, ‘emotional’ and ‘heart’. The ‘Management’ qualities on the left side, such as
‘facts’, ‘intellectual’ and ‘head’, can be aligned with stereotypically male traits. YWCA Adelaide’s
programs focus on identifying the ‘Leadership’ (or stereotypically feminine) qualities within
their participants and recognising them as positive, which, as Mari Toyama (September 2016)
and Lopez-Zafra and Garcia-Retamero (2010) argue, are invaluable to contemporary
organisations.
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This section has presented the history, ethos and programs of YWCA Tokyo and Adelaide, as
well as defined YWCA Adelaide’s concept of strengths-based personal leadership. In utilising
this concept in the YWLP, participants will be assisted in developing their personal strengths
and self esteem, thereby becoming confident leaders in their private and public lives.
PART TWO: THE JAPANESE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT
This section of the report will investigate the history of the Japanese women’s movement,
feminism in Japan and current gender issues that Japanese women are concerned with.
A Brief History of the Japanese Women’s Movement: 1868 to 1950
The Meiji Era (1868-1912) was a time of great change for Japan, during which relations with the
West were reopened after two centuries of being closed to foreigners. In order to match the
power and technology of the West, Japanese women were encouraged to participate in
education, science and technology, however this time was short-lived. By the beginning of the
twentieth century women were encouraged to remain in the home and to stay away from
political, intellectual or external affairs (Renshaw 1999 p.68-69). This mind-set was
communicated in the phrases “good wife, wise mother” and “self-sacrifice”, and even today
these ideas are still transmitted to Japanese girls from a young age (Renshaw 1999 p.55). It is
during the Meiji Era that widespread evidence of women organising in great numbers becomes
prominent.
Amongst the influx of foreigners travelling to Japan were female Anglo-Christian missionaries,
who promoted education amongst Japanese women; advocated Christian-based morals and
values; and taught ‘modern’ methods of forming and managing a women’s volunteer
association (Yasutake 2009 p.14). From these beginnings a national network of Japanese
churchwomen with connections to the international churchwomen’s movement steadily grew.
This allowed for the free exchange of ideas between groups from different countries,
culminating in new information becoming available to the women of Japan and thus
broadening their understanding of women’s rights.
During the first few decades of the 1900s several international women’s groups, such as the
YYWCA, formed branches in various countries, including Japan and Australia. One aim of these
groups was securing the right to vote for women, which Japanese women achieved in 1946. In
comparison Australian women achieved suffrage between 1895 and 1908, while several
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European countries achieved suffrage between 1906 and 1946 (Australian Electoral
Commission 2015; Johnson 2016).
Feminism in Japan Post-1950
Feminism in Japan remains a controversial topic and its roots are highly debated. It is often
assumed by Western feminists that Japan’s feminist movement was the result of the Western
women’s liberation movement (Saito in Buckley 1997 p.257); however Saito argues that
Japanese feminism has ‘no external influence’ (Saito in Buckley 1997 p.257). It is also important
to recognise that, just like in the Western world, there are many Japanese feminisms and to
speak of one negates this reality (Saito in Buckley 1997 p.267).
To understand Japanese feminism and the women’s movement, it is also of great importance to
understand Japanese culture, society and social rules. Group cohesion is of the utmost
importance, as opposed to Western culture where individualism is prioritised. In Japan
‘regulation takes the “soft” form of social custom’ (Saito in Buckley 1997 p.270) and can be a
powerful force in maintaining the status quo and in controlling minority groups. While
historically individual or minority voices have been silenced (including those of women), in
recent decades individual voices are gaining greater power, despite being different from the
group and therefore seen as “dissident” (Saito in Buckley 1997 p.268).
It is also important to understand the influence of philosophy and religion in Japan and how it
affects culture and society and even the understanding of “basic” feminist concepts such as
patriarchy and liberation (Saito in Buckley 1997 p.268-9). For example, Japan has been greatly
influenced by Buddhism, Shinto and Confucianism during its long history (Saito in Buckley 1997
p.269; Renshaw 1999 p.69). Confucianism in particular has ‘specifically defined hierarchies for
family and national life, the deference of subject to ruler, child to parent, wife to husband, and
female to male’ (Renshaw 1999 p.69). As opposed to Western religions that emphasise the
individual and one-to-one relationships with God, these three Japanese religions emphasise
universal relationships with family, the group and other people, and to nature and the universe
(Renshaw 1999 p.69). This combination of religions has unfortunately relegated women’s status
to beneath that of men and contributed to the prescribing of women’s role and place in the
home, away from public life.
According to Ueno,
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[Japanese] women’s primary goal is not to be like men but to value what it means to be
a woman. This aspect of Japanese feminism is deeply rooted in the history of the
women’s movement in Japan as well as the individual experience of women (Ueno in
Buckley 1997 p.278).
Ueno further identifies that Western feminists have not readily recognised the significant
power that Asian and Japanese women have in the private sphere. For example, while public
power is associated with masculinity (Duerst-Lahti 2010 p.4), Japanese women have a
significant history of being powerful in the home and private sphere, and that role is still valued
in contemporary Japan (Ueno in Buckley 1997 p.279). As such, it is important not to belittle the
importance of the stereotypically ‘feminine’ role, and instead emphasise balance and choice
between the masculine and feminine, in individuals as well as wider society.
Current Gender Issues in Japan
Current gender-based issues in Japan include the following: the gender pay gap; low
representation of women in STEM fields (science, technology, engineering and mathematics), in
academia, government and high-level company roles; workplace discrimination and
harassment; domestic violence; child prostitution and trafficking; access to childcare services;
care for the elderly; body image; and the anti-nuclear and environmental movements (Dales
2010; Fujiwara personal communications September 2016; Gaunder 2015; Gelb 2010; Gender
Equality Bureau Cabinet Office 2015; Japan Times 2014; Yoneyama personal communications
September 2016).
Amongst the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries,
which includes Australia, USA, Germany and France, Japan’s gender pay gap is the third largest,
at 26.6% difference between a man and woman’s salary. Australia is ranked 11th with 18%,
followed by the United States and United Kingdom with 17.91% and 17.48% respectfully (OECD
2014).
Reports also by the OECD reveal women’s low representation in the higher-levels of
government and companies in Japan, with less than 5% of Japanese company board members
being female (Japan Today 2012). Furthermore, in a study by the World Economic Forum in
2014 on gender equality in the developed world, Japan was ranked 104th out of 142 countries
in 2014, lower than Indonesia and Tajikistan (Japan Times 2014).
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This section has endeavoured to present a basic understanding of the history of the Japanese
women’s movement, women’s status in society, and contemporary economic and social issues.
Although there is a long history of the women’s movement and feminism in Japan, it is often
invisible to the public eye. There remain many issues facing women in contemporary Japan,
both economic and social, which require government, community and individual action to begin
and continue to rectify. One of the long-term goals of the YWLP is to address this issue by
developing young women’s leadership and confidence, and providing them with the skills and
education to become leaders in their communities and to improve conditions for women in
Japan.
PART THREE: JAPANESE LEADERSHIP AND WOMEN LEADERS
This section investigates Japanese leadership, culture and society; notable Japanese women
leaders; and perceptions of Japanese women leaders and potential barriers to leadership.
What is Japanese Leadership?
The following section has been written based upon comprehensive research by Renshaw (1999)
and interviews conducted with Adelaide University Asian Studies senior lecturer Dr Shoko
Yoneyama, visiting YWCA Tokyo Board Member Miho Fujiwara, and two Japanese staff
members of the Tokyo YWCA, Vice General Secretary Mari Toyama, and Youth Development
Program Coordinator Keiko Koretsune.
The culture of companies and businesses in Japan are identified as ‘a man’s world’ ( 男おとこ
社会しゃかい
otoko shakai) and the common understanding of a leader is based upon this concept. Leaders
are often identified as male and senior in both age and position, as status and deference is
granted with age in Japan (Renshaw 1999 p.89; Fujiwara September 2016; Yoneyama
September 2016). Good leaders must be individuals as well as excellent negotiators and able to
identify as part of the group (Yoneyama September 2016). A characteristic of Japanese
leadership in companies is the process of nemawashi (根回ねまわ
し), in which consensus is gained
from all stakeholders and participators regarding decisions – a common reason why doing
business with a Japanese company can be tedious and difficult (Renshaw 1999 p.83, Yoneyama
September 2016).
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However Toyama of the Tokyo YWCA identifies that there are at least two styles of leadership.
One is the common understanding of one person (often a senior man) leading a group;
however the other requires the leader to coordinate teamwork between group members,
which Toyama believes is becoming steadily more required. A cooperative leadership style
requires creativity, interpersonal skills, emotional intelligence and the ability to discuss and
compromise – all skills that, according to Renshaw (1999) and Lopez-Zafra and Garcia-Retamero
(2010), women are more experienced in.
It has been well-documented that Japan is a considerably more collectivist society than Britain
or the United States (Smith et al. 1992 p.8). Harmony amongst the group in Japan is very
important. The wellbeing of the group is generally regarded as more important than the
wellbeing of the individual, as is group cooperation and supporting one’s peers in their
successes (Renshaw 1999; Smith et al. 1992). The private and public domains of Japan are
closely combined, as opposed to the more distinct separation between private and public life in
the West. Japanese culture has also been identified as a ‘negative-face culture with a strong
emphasis on indirectness and politeness in interpersonal communication’ (Takano 2004 p.634).
Japanese Women Leaders of the 20th and 21st Centuries
In the context of this report, leadership is defined utilising the YWCA Adelaide’s strengths-
based yet broad understanding of the term. It is recognised that leadership can mean different
things to different people, cultures, and contexts. YWCA Adelaide’s strengths-based leadership
approach encourages leadership not only in the workforce, but also individually in terms of
personal life, study, finances, family life and relationships, thus encompassing a range of public
and private areas.
In this section Japanese female leadership is defined as women who have worked to better the
lives of themselves, other women, and minority groups. Using such a definition, Japan has a
long history of female leaders who diverged from their prescribed gender and led a life far from
what society expected of them. These women can be identified as leaders due to their
relentless work to better the lives of women, children and minority groups, through utilising
their strengths and experiences, forming groups and speaking publicly about issues, and
conducting their own behaviour and personal life in a way that aligns with their values. A brief
list of notable women include:
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Chiyo Saito, founding editor of the Japanese feminist journal Agora (Buckley 1997)
Chizuko Ueno, pictured below (1948-), sociologist specialising in feminist research
(Buckley 1997)
Keiko Ochiai (1945-, a writer who deals with controversial issues such as abortion, rape
and extramarital sex (Buckley 1997)
Raicho Hiratsuka, pictured below (1886-1971), pioneering Japanese feminist (Fujiwara
September 2016)
Shizue Katou, pictured below (1897-2001), leading birth control advocate (Renshaw
1999 p.51)
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Chizuko Ueno 上野うえの
千鶴子ち ず こ
(1948-)
Shizue Kato 加藤かとう
しずえ (1897-2001)
Raichou Hiratsuka 平塚ひらつか
らいちょう (1886-1971)
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However it is not only high-profile Japanese women leaders that have contributed to the
women’s movement – countless nameless, faceless housewives are also involved in Japanese
feminism (Saito in Buckley 1997 p.257). Although these women may not be publicly recognised
or named, they are the ones who maintain social movements. This aligns with Renshaw’s and
Yoneyama’s understandings that women have remained subordinate to men in the public
power structure, yet are active in their communities and often leaders in an informal, unpaid,
volunteer capacity (Renshaw 1999 p.68; Yoneyama September 2016).
Perception of Female Japanese Leaders and Barriers to Leadership
In Japan, despite that women are educated just as well as, and often better than, their male
peers and achieve high marks at the same prestigious universities, they are not equally
represented in decision-making or management positions in the vast majority of sectors,
professions, industries, government, media or non-profit organisations (Renshaw 1999 p.137).
The majority of companies in Japan are still male-dominated, defined for and by men, and it can
be very difficult for women to fit into such environments (Renshaw 1999 p.91). Within such
companies women are often relegated to the role of ‘office ladies’, given menial tasks such as
serving coffee or photocopying, or simply remain at the lower levels of the company while their
male colleagues are promoted (Renshaw 1999 p.83). While there is an increasing number of
professional Japanese women who are adopting the traditionally male role of leader and
authority figure (Takano 2004 p.633), especially compared to the 1990s in which women in
these professions were unrecognised (Renshaw 1999 p.95-6), women leaders are still subject to
unfair and sexist forms of treatment and judgement compared to their male counterparts.
Japanese women must also abide by strict social and professional rules that prescribe
appropriate dress, manner and way of speaking. This “social personality” includes being
“modest” in opinions and behaviour, and being “polite and gentle” to others during social
interactions (Takano 2004 p.634). Indirectness and politeness of speech have become the norm
for how Japanese women should speak, both in the public and private spheres (Takano 2004
p.634).
The Japanese language is inherently gendered in that there are expressions, words and
grammatical modifications dependent on the speaker’s (and listener’s) gender. The result of
these modifications is that women generally speak in a less direct, assertive and forceful
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manner than men. For example the imperative form of ‘to drink’ for men is nome (飲の
め), while
for women it is nominasai (飲の
みなさい). The sounds of the female form are shorter and more
drawn out, which results in a softer sound compared to the short and hard emphasis on the e
sound that ends the male form.
Such gendered differences in the Japanese language can pose a problem for women leaders
and business managers, as Renshaw (1999) and Takano (2004) investigate. When speaking to a
male subordinate, a woman manager must assert her authority, however should she choose to
use the male linguistic forms and appear (too) masculine, or use the feminine forms and appear
disempowered? The strict social etiquette rules of Japanese society, including the social
relationships between superiors and subordinates that are affected by both age and company
position, also complicate women’s use of language in the workplace (Takano 2004 p.634).
These factors contribute to further discriminating and segregating Japanese women in the
workplace.
The adoption of the “good wife, wise mother” (ryousai kenbo 良妻賢母りょうさいけんぼ
) education system for
Japanese women during the Meiji Era still affects women today. This system prescribes
women’s place as being in the home, married, raising children, taking care of the father, looking
after the house, and not working outside of the home. While ryousai kenbo contributed to the
furthering of Japan’s economy in the 20th century, it is now holding the country’s economy
back, as many specialists believe that women’s involvement in the workforce will increase the
Japanese economy (The Economist 2014).
This section has provided basic information regarding understandings of Japanese leadership,
female leaders, and some of the strict social and professional rules that dictate private and
public lives. Understanding Japanese attitudes towards leadership, women and work is vital to
the YWLP so that recommendations can be made respectfully and sensitively.
PART FOUR: YOUNG WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP PROGRAM OUTLINE
Drawing upon the findings of the report so far, the following section will provide structural
details for YWCA Tokyo’s 2017 pilot young women’s leadership program (YWLP), followed by
content recommendations for the program. A consultative approach has been undertaken to
develop these recommendations, with both Miho Fujiwara and YWCA Adelaide staff
20
contributing to the direction of the program. Analysis of current relevant YWCA Adelaide
programs, including She Leads, She Leads High and Every Girl, has been undertaken in order to
determine suitable content. She Leads, a YWCA Adelaide program for developing women’s
leadership in their careers and workplaces, has also been used to inform the Skills workshop
recommendations. Where content from Every Girl and She Leads High has been suggested, it is
assumed that content will be updated for an older audience as appropriate.
Limitations
Due to the limitations of this report, in-depth recommendations are provided for the
‘Education’ and ‘Personal Strengths and Skills’ sections, while general recommendations are
provided for the Community Engagement section. Recommendations on the specific format
and facilitation of individual workshops are not provided at this time. Instead, YWCA Adelaide
training manuals contain practical information on organising and facilitating workshops and can
be consulted for further information on this aspect. It is also assumed throughout this section
that YWCA Tokyo will build upon the recommendations of this report and develop them further
in the creation of the YWLP.
Young Women’s Leadership Program Structure
The YWLP takes into consideration the importance that Japanese society and culture places on
group identity, group involvement and community coherence. Therefore, it is advised that the
program begin with a focus on Community Engagement, followed by Education, then Personal
Strengths and Skills, so that participants can begin the program operating from a place of
familiarity, knowledge and comfort. The following pyramid graph visually represents this
relationship.
21
Program Parameters
Aimed at 18-22 year old women, with an interest in or membership with Tokyo YWCA
Program will run for 6-8 weeks with a group of maximum 20, minimum 10 participants
Program is divided into three sections: Community Engagement, Education, and
Personal Strengths and Skills with 2-3 workshops per section
Workshops will be held once per week, of 1.5-2 hours length, covering a different topic
each week
Each workshop will contain a mixture of lecture, personal and group exercises so as to
ensure participation, interaction and discussion
Aims and Outcomes
To increase the participation and retention of current and future young women
volunteers within YWCA Tokyo
To develop the leadership capacity and confidence of current and new young women
volunteers through teaching new skills and developing personal traits
To educate and inform participants about the history of the Japanese women’s
movement, current gender issues, notable female leaders and feminism from a
Japanese feminist perspective
To teach concrete skills such as critical thinking, long- and short-term career
management, emotional/stress management etc.
To adequately prepare participants to be mentors for the Tokyo YWCA children’s camps
Personal Strengths and Skills
Education
Community Engagement
22
To provide young women with the education and skills to become leaders in their
communities and contribute to improving conditions for women in Japan
The flowchart below illustrates how the YWLP will increase participation and retention of young
women volunteers. The program will train participants to become mentors, and these mentors
will guide young girls in the Tokyo YWCA’s children camps. When the young girls are old enough
they too will become involved with the YWLP and receive training to become mentors
themselves. In this way young women’s involvement in YWCA Tokyo will be increased in the
future.
The following flowchart visually represents the development processes of the YWLP. By
teaching knowledge and skills, participants will be able to make better choices for themselves,
and in doing so they will become a role model and mentor to younger girls both within YWCA
Tokyo and to others in their personal lives. This in turn will bring about change in the
participant’s life, their community and YWCA Tokyo, and even on a larger societal scale in the
future.
YWLP trains participants
Participants mentor children
Children become
YWLP participants
Knowledge
Skills
ChoicesRolemodel
and Mentor
Change
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PART FIVE: YOUNG WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP PROGRAM CONTENT RECOMMENDATIONS
This section of the report will cover content recommendations for the YWLP, with a focus on
Education and Individual Strengths and Skills.
Safe Spaces
It is vital that individuals feel safe and comfortable to discuss ideas and relate personal
information throughout the YWLP. This can be achieved by introducing and utilising the YWCA
Safe Spaces model at the beginning of the program. This model outlines the process of creating
a safe space within a group, which involves discussing and deciding on a code of conduct. The
exact code may vary, but emphasises respect and privacy. For a comprehensive safe spaces
policy please refer to the World YWCA Safe Spaces Model (2014) and the Every Girl Program
Facilitator Handbook in the Recommended Resources section of this report.
Education
Education and the ability to critically analyse information is extremely important in the YWLP.
During conversations with Fujiwara (September 2016) she related how many young women are
unfamiliar with feminism, gender studies or women’s rights and that her work with the Tokyo
YWCA, as well as her interest in working with a women’s organisation as opposed to a
company, is very unusual. Yoneyama also highlighted the importance of education during our
interview (September 2016). Furthermore, Renshaw argues that ‘*a+ttitudes about proper
behaviour for women and men are so deeply embedded in family relationships, child-rearing
practices, and education that only a conscious effort to increase awareness, combined with
strong social pressures, can bring change’ (1999 p.57). Through education and awareness-
raising, gaps in knowledge can be bridged, awareness can be increased and change can occur,
hence the importance of education to the YWLP.
Women’s Movements
Based upon this information as well as the research conducted in this report, it is
recommended that the YWLP incorporates a thorough education on the Japanese women’s
movement; YWCA Tokyo, YWCA Japan and the World YWCA; notable 20th and 21st century
Japanese women leaders, and current gender issues facing Japanese women, including minority
groups. Relating Japan’s women’s movement to international women’s movements, both
24
contemporary and historic, is also recommended so as to encourage a world-wide perspective
and intercultural understanding.
Japanese feminist theory should be used to analyse historical, social and cultural concepts and
issues, and further research must be done on the exact approach of this. However it may
involve utilising texts from Japanese feminists, emphasising women’s experience, and
identifying structural forces that discriminate against women, whilst incorporating the values of
the Tokyo YWCA including peace, human rights, and economic and social justice. It is also
recommended that critical thinking be taught and encouraged concurrently with the Education
section, so that participants can develop the ability to critically analyse information that
pertains to women’s issues.
Leadership
As part of the Education section the concept of leadership is to be addressed. This report
provides a basic understanding of leadership in the Japanese sense and the YWCA Adelaide
sense, both of which can be covered in the program. Some examples of topics to cover when
explaining leadership include what leadership means to the participants; general leadership
theory; an explanation and discussion regarding personal leadership; and how it can develop
one’s capacity as a leader and mentor. During this section it is important to balance the YWCA
Adelaide understanding of leadership with the Japanese understanding of leadership, and to
identify Japanese skills that are useful and could be developed further.
An issue that will need to be addressed regarding leadership is choosing the correct Japanese
word to describe personal leadership, as there are no native words that describe this concept.
While there are native words to describe the concept of leadership as leading a group or
company to success, or working to create a better world in the future, there is little
understanding of personal leadership as per the YWCA Adelaide definition.
Upon lengthy discussions with Fujiwara, the native Japanese word that is closest to the YWCA
Adelaide definition of personal leadership is jikokeihatsu (自己啓発じこけいはつ
), more accurately
translated as ‘self development’, which only partially represents the YWCA Adelaide
understanding. Other words that can be used in this section to facilitate understanding include
the English loan words for leadership, riidaashippu (リーダーシップ), and empowerment,
25
empawaasuru (エンパワーする). Unfortunately it remains outside the scope of this report to
investigate this issue further and as such it is recommended that YWCA Tokyo further explore
this problem.
Presentation Methods
Films and videos are used in YWCA Adelaide leadership programs to present information
visually whilst also adding diversity to program and workshop content. Presentation methods
for the YWLP can include informal talks, with opportunities for questions and discussion as
appropriate, as well as films, videos and guest speakers. Examples of videos and movies to
utilise include:
What Are You Afraid Of? – a documentary about the daughters of elder Japanese
feminists, their relationships with their mothers, and their understanding of feminism
Short videos from SK-II’s #ChangeDestiny campaign – shows the social pressure women
face to conform to stereotypical Japanese feminine norms and encourages alternative
actions
Taryn Brumfitt’s film Embrace – about body image and body positivity. Fujiwara has
advised this film would be very useful to raise awareness and further discussions about
Japan’s growing body image problem amongst girls and women (Fujiwara September
2016), however at the time of writing it has yet to be subtitled in Japanese
Japanese anime films such as Hayao Miyazaki’s Kiki’s Delivery Service (魔女まじょう
の宅 急 便たっきゅうびん
)
– about a young witch who leaves home to find her calling in the world. This film could
be used as a novel example of making one’s own choices and decisions, and identifying
and developing one’s individual talents and strengths
Links for these resources can be found in the Recommended Resources list.
Interaction Methods
While discussion is heavily encouraged in YWCA Adelaide’s leadership programs, such an
activity may not appeal to Japanese women or prove particularly effective when considering
Japan’s regard for group cohesiveness. As such, personal reflection activities are recommended,
such as keeping a journal over the course of the program or creative activities such as drawing
or painting, while group discussion is trialled.
26
Individual Strengths and Skills
The second recommendation for the YWLP is to identify personal strengths, increase
confidence and develop useful concrete skills.
Individual Strengths
YWCA Adelaide programs adopt a strengths-based approach in which participants are assisted
and encouraged in identifying their own personal strengths, the process of which improves
participants’ confidence and understanding of self and others. Personal strengths might be
skills or traits such as being good at arts and crafts; being empathic and understanding towards
others; being inclined to leading in group situations; or having strong organisational skills. No
matter the skill or trait, it is important to identify it, celebrate it, and work with the individual
participant on developing that skill and utilising it to the benefit of the individual and their
community. The Every Girl and She Leads High programs contain activities to assist in this
process and can be consulted for further information.
Skills
Content recommendations have been discussed with Fujiwara and informed by each of our
understandings of YWCA Adelaide’s She Leads High and She Leads programs. The following
training has been identified as important to include:
Assertiveness training
Career planning
Financial management
Long-term and short-term time management
Stress and emotional management
Other Recommendations
As stated at the beginning of this section, due to the limits of this report, only general
recommendations on the Community Engagement aspect of the YWLP will be provided. This is
because tangible content for this section cannot be adequately provided due to lack of first-
person involvement with YWCA Tokyo. However, as a general guide, it is recommended that
activities similar to the YWCA Adelaide’s programs be conducted. This could include presenting
an individual or group presentation on an issue of social importance; organising an event to
27
raise awareness and/or funds for a local or national cause; or further developing the role and
responsibilities of the children’s camp mentors within YWCA Tokyo. It is recommended that
future participants of the YWLP be surveyed to gain an understanding of what issues affect
themselves and their community, what skills and knowledge they require to address them, and
how the YWLP and YWCA Tokyo can meet these needs through the YWLP.
Furthermore, as per discussions with Fujiwara and Koretsune (September 2016) it is evident
there is a gap in knowledge for many members of the YWCA Tokyo staff. To address this, the
YWLP program can be delivered and trialled on staff first, so as to train both facilitators and
staff in the content and delivery of the program.
It is also important that the YWLP has a strong evidence base, theoretical approach and
concrete learning outcomes that guide the structure, content and delivery of the YWLP. To
ensure this further research must be undertaken on Japanese feminism and how it might be
utilised as a theoretical approach to the program.
Finally, at the completion of the program a review and evaluation that incorporates the
feedback of participants should be conducted.
In this final section I have recommended only the beginning of content for the YWLP. There
remains much work to be done to develop these recommendations into a structured, defined,
well-researched program. Further development must be applied to the Community
Engagement section as well as the structure, content and delivery of the program’s workshops.
Facilitators will also need to be trained in the content and delivery of the program, and it is
advised that a comprehensive handbook, similar to the Every Girl handbook, be written so as to
clearly define all aspects of the program. To assist YWCA Tokyo in this, it is recommended that
this report be translated into Japanese.
Materials that may be of use to the development of the YWLP, including instructions on
workshop facilitation, are contained within the YWCA She Leads High and Every Girl manuals, as
well as the She Leads program workbooks, details of which can be found in the Recommended
Resources section.
28
CONCLUSION
This report has endeavoured to answer the question, in what ways can YWCA Adelaide’s
current women’s leadership programs be adapted in the recommendation of content for a
2017 pilot young women’s leadership program (YWLP) for YWCA Tokyo?
Through researching the Japanese women’s movement, Japanese understandings of leadership,
and both the YWCA Adelaide and YWCA Tokyo, several key recommendations have been made
as to the content of the YWLP. These recommendations take into consideration Japanese
culture and society, as well as the aims and goals of visiting YWCA Tokyo Board Member Miho
Fujiwara, with whom the recommendations were discussed and developed. With an emphasis
on education, skills and community, the YWLP develops leadership and confidence in young
women to pursue their goals and become successful leaders and mentors within their
community and YWCA Tokyo.
In recommending content for the YWLP, it is my personal hope that this program will assist
young Japanese women to develop their leadership potential and challenge the more
restrictive aspects of gender stereotypes in Japanese culture, whilst also valuing women’s
contributions to the private sphere. As students, mentors and informed citizens, the
participants trained by the YWLP will possess the education, skills and confidence to make
positive contributions and changes to their personal lives and Japanese society. It is in this way
that YWCA Tokyo and the YWLP will contribute to the development of young Japanese women
for the betterment of Japan and the world.
Genevieve Brandenburg
7579 words
For Adelaide University Arts Internship with YWCA Adelaide
November 2016
29
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
Hayao Miyazaki (1989) Kiki’s Delivery Service (魔女まじょう
の宅 急 便たっきゅうびん
)
Hisako Matsui (2015) What Are You Afraid Of?
http://www.japansociety.org/event/what-are-you-afraid-of
Tarryn Brumfitt (2015) Embrace
SK-II (2016) #ChangeDestiny Campaign
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rw1dXuVnC8I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKEuIoBs7zY
YWCA Adelaide (2015d) She Leads High Program Booklet, YWCA Adelaide, Adelaide.
YWCA Adelaide (2015e) She Leads Program 2015/16 Participant Handbook, YWCA Adelaide,
Adelaide.
YWCA Adelaide (2015f) She Leads Program 2015/16 Participant Workbook, YWCA Adelaide,
Adelaide.
YWCA Adelaide (2015g) She Leads Program 2015/16 Participant Workbook 2 – Communication,
YWCA Adelaide, Adelaide.
YWCA Australia (2015) Every Girl Program: Facilitator Handbook, YWCA Australia, Canberra.
World YWCA (2014) YWCA Safe Spaces for Women and Girls: A Global Model for Change, World
YWCA, Switzerland.
30
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YWCA MATERIALS
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