![Page 1: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
What is What is Knowledge?Knowledge?
![Page 2: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
• you must believe the knowledge statement
• your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true
• your true belief has to be justified.
““justified, true belief”justified, true belief”
![Page 3: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
““justified, true belief”justified, true belief”Requires:• Evidence – reasonable & positive evidence that supports & justifies belief. Coherence – does this fit with our current understanding?
![Page 4: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Logical fallaciesLogical fallacies
![Page 5: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
The more churches there The more churches there are in a city, the more are in a city, the more prostitutes there are. prostitutes there are.
![Page 6: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
People who have a tattoo are People who have a tattoo are more likely to develop lung more likely to develop lung
cancer. This is true. cancer. This is true.
![Page 7: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Connor says that he knows Connor says that he knows someone who is 90 and who someone who is 90 and who has smoked 40 cigarettes a has smoked 40 cigarettes a
day for 75 years and he’s OK, day for 75 years and he’s OK, so smoking can’t be harmful. so smoking can’t be harmful.
![Page 8: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Eleanor bought a good luck Eleanor bought a good luck charm and he seems to be charm and he seems to be
doing better at school. doing better at school.
![Page 9: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Post hoc ergo propter hocPost hoc ergo propter hocAssuming one thing causes another just because one follows another.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 10: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
A summary of common A summary of common fallaciesfallacies
![Page 11: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Ad ignorantiamAd ignorantiamClaiming that something is true because it cannot be proved to be false.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 12: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Hasty generalisationHasty generalisationGeneralising from insufficient evidence.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 13: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Ad hominemAd hominemAttacking /supporting the person rather than the argument.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 14: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Circular reasoningCircular reasoningAssuming the truth of what you are supposed to be proving.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 15: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Special pleadingSpecial pleadingUsing double standards to excuse an individual or group.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 16: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
EquivocationEquivocationUsing language ambiguously.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 17: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
False analogyFalse analogyAssuming that because two things are alike in one way that they are alike in other respects.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 18: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
False dilemmaFalse dilemmaAssuming that only a limited number of alternatives exist.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 19: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Loaded questionLoaded questionA question that is biased because it contains a built-in assumption.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 20: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
In each of the following cases, In each of the following cases, decide which best applies to decide which best applies to
the argument.the argument.Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 21: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
1.1.Since strict gun control laws were introduced in Dodge City, the crime rate has risen. This shows that gun control does nothing to reduce crime.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 22: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
post hoc ergo propter hocpost hoc ergo propter hocSince strict gun control laws were introduced in Dodge City, the crime rate has risen. This shows that gun control does nothing to reduce crime.
![Page 23: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
2.2.Abbie said she trusted me, and she must be telling the truth because she wouldn’t lie to someone that she trusted.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 24: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
circular reasoningcircular reasoningAbbie said she trusted me, and she must be telling the truth because she wouldn’t lie to someone that she trusted.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 25: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
3. 3. The ends justifies the means. After all, if you want to make omelettes, you have to break eggs.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 26: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
false analogyfalse analogyThe ends justifies the means. After all, if you want to make omelettes, you have to break eggs.
![Page 27: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
4. 4. That can’t be right, non of my friends would believe it.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 28: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
ad hominemad hominemThat can’t be right, non of my friends would believe it.
![Page 29: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
5. 5. Since many great scientists have believed in God, there must be some truth in religion.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 30: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
ad hominemad hominemSince many great scientists have believed in God, there must be some truth in religion.
![Page 31: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
7. 7. Do you want to be part of the solution, or part of the problem?
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
![Page 32: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
false dilemmafalse dilemmaDo you want to be part of the solution, or part of the problem?
![Page 33: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
8. 8. “I agree that you shouldn’t copy mp3s illegally, but I’ve only copied a few and I do buy tracks sometimes.”
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 34: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
special pleadingspecial pleading“I agree that you shouldn’t copy mp3s illegally, but I’ve only copied a few and I do buy tracks sometimes.”
![Page 35: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
9.9.The average UK family has 2.5 children. The Smiths are average people, they must have 2.5 kids.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 36: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
equivocationequivocationThe average UK family has 2.5 children. The Smiths are average people, they must have 2.5 kids.
![Page 37: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
10.10.Since no-one has been able to prove that God didn’t create the universe, we must conclude that God did make everything.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 38: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
ad ignorantiumad ignorantiumSince no-one has been able to prove that God didn’t create the universe, we must conclude that God did make everything.
![Page 39: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
11.11.Are all your family stupid, or is it just you?
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 40: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
loaded questionloaded questionAre all your family stupid, or is it just you?
![Page 41: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
12.12.No scandal has ever touched Mr Porter. He must be a clean living and honest man.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 42: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
ad ignorantiumad ignorantiumNo scandal has ever touched Mr Porter. He must be a clean living and honest man.
![Page 43: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
13.13.Just as you are more likely to take care of a car that you own rather than a car that you rent, a slave owner would look after a slave better than an employer would look after their worker.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 44: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
false analogyfalse analogyJust as you are more likely to take care of a car that you own rather than a car that you rent, a slave owner would look after a slave better than an employer would look after their worker.
![Page 45: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
14.14.To ignore the possibility that Norway landed the first person on the moon just because nobody has heard of a Norwegian space program is arrogant. If we are unaware of something does not mean that it never happened.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 46: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
ad ignorantiumad ignorantiumTo ignore the possibility that Norway landed the first person on the moon just because nobody has heard of a Norwegian space program is arrogant. If we are unaware of something does not mean that it never happened.
![Page 47: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
15.15.In the fight against terrorism, you are either with the USA or against.
“Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma”, Richard van de Lagemaat, Cambridge University Press
Hasty generalisation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, circular reasoning, ad hominem, special pleading, ad ignorantium, false dilemma, false analogy, equivocation, loaded question.
![Page 48: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
false dilemmafalse dilemmaIn the fight against terrorism, you are either with the USA or against.
![Page 49: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Your knowledge issues?Your knowledge issues?
![Page 50: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
McDonald’s and language
![Page 51: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Moon Landing?
![Page 52: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Intelligent Design
![Page 53: What is Knowledge?. you must believe the knowledge statement your belief in the knowledge statement has to be true your true belief has to be justified](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022062421/56649e495503460f94b3cd01/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Obama’s Health Policy