Download - What is culture? What
What is culture?
3-1 Figure 3-1
Cultural Influences on Organizational Behavior
McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
OrganizationalBehavior
OrganizationalCulture
• Personal values/ethics• Attitudes• Assumptions• Expectations
Societal culture
• Customs• Language
• Economic/ technological setting• Political/ legal setting• Ethnic background• Religion
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Ethnocentrism belief that one’s native country, culture, language, and behavior are superior.
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Ethnocentrism
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Global Perspective: Focus on global business Cultural Responsiveness: Become familiar with
many cultures Appreciate Cultural Synergies: Learn multicultural
dynamics Cultural Adaptability: Live and work effectively in
different cultures Cross-Cultural Communication: Daily cross-
cultural interaction Cross-Cultural Collaboration: Multicultural
teamwork Acquire Broad Foreign Experience: Series of
foreign career assignments
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Skills & Best Practices: Becoming Global Manager Material
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Individualistic Cultures: “I” and “me” cultures where individual freedom and choice are given priority.
Collectivist Cultures: “We” and “us” cultures where shared goals and interests rank higher than individual desires and goals.
High-Context Cultures: primary meaning derived from nonverbal cues.
Low-Context Cultures: primary meaning derived from written and spoken words.
Monochronic time: preference for doing one thing at a time because time is limited, precisely segmented, and schedule driven.
Polychronic time: preference for doing more than one thing at a time because time is flexible and multidimensional.
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Key Cultural Dimensions
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Power distance Uncertainty avoidance Societal collectivism In-group collectivism Gender egalitarianism Assertiveness Future orientation Performance orientation Humane orientation
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Nine Basic Cultural Dimensions fromthe GLOBE Project
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3-6 Table 3-1
Countries Ranking Highest and Loweston the GLOBE Cultural Dimensions
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Greece, Hungary, Germany—former East, Argentina, Italy
Sweden, Korea, Japan, Singapore, Denmark
Societal Collectivism
Russia, Hungary, Bolivia, Greece, Venezuela
Switzerland, Sweden, German—former West, Denmark, Australia
Uncertainty Avoidance
Denmark, Netherlands, South Africa—black sample, Israel, Costa Rica
Morocco, Argentina, Thailand, Spain, Russia
Power distance
LowestHighestDimensions
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3-7 Table 3-1
Countries Ranking Highest and Loweston the GLOBE Cultural Dimensions (Cont.)
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Sweden, New Zealand, Switzerland, Japan, Kuwait
Germany—former East, Austria, Greece, US, Spain
Assertiveness
South Korea, Egypt, Morocco, India, China
Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, Denmark, Sweden
Gender egalitarianism
Denmark, Sweden, New Zealand, Netherlands, Finland
Iran, India, Morocco, China, Egypt
In-group collectivism
LowestHighestDimensions
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3-8 Table 3-1
Countries Ranking Highest and Loweston the GLOBE Cultural Dimensions (Cont.)
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Germany—former West, Spain, France, Singapore, Brazil
Philippines, Ireland, Malaysia, Egypt, Indonesia
Humane orientation
Russia, Argentina, Greece, Venezuela, Italy
Singapore, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Taiwan, US
Performance orientation
Russia, Argentina, Poland, Italy, Kuwait
Singapore, Switzerland, Netherlands, Canada—English speaking, Denmark
Future orientation
LowestHighestDimensions
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Perception
Perception is the process of interpreting one’s environment.
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Perception Defined
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4-2 Figure 4-1
A Social Information Processing Model of Perception
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Competingenvironmental
stimuli:* People* Events* Objects
Interpretationand
categorization
Stage 1Selective Attention/
Comprehension
Stage 2Encoding
and Simplification
A
C
F
A
B
C
D
E
F
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4-3 Figure 4-1
A Social Information Processing Model of Perception (Cont.)
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Stage 3Storage and
Retention
Stage 4Retrieval
and Response
MemoryJudgments and
decisionsC
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Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension- Attention is the process of becoming aware of something or someone- People pay attention to salient stimuli
Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification- Encoding is the process of interpreting environmental stimuli by using information contained in cognitive categories and schemata- The same information can be interpreted differently by people due to individual differences
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Social Information Processing ModelOf Perception
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Stage 3: Storage and Retention- Encoded information or stimuli is sent to long- term memory- Long-term memory is composed of three compartments containing categories of information about events, semantic materials, and people
Stage 4: Retrieval and Response- Information is retrieved from memory when people make judgments and decisions
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Social Information Processing Model of Perception (Cont.)
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A Stereotype is a belief about the characteristics of a group
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Stereotypes
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4-7 Table 4-1
Commonly Found Perceptual Errors
The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral.
Central Tendency
A personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion.
Leniency
A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then uses the impression to bias ratings about the object.
Halo
DescriptionPerceptual Error
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4-8 Table 4-1
Commonly Found Perceptual Errors (Cont.)
The tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects.
Contrast Effects
The tendency to remember recent information. If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively.
Recency Effects
DescriptionPerceptual Error
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Basic Premise: An attribution is based on the consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency of the observed behavior.
Internal vs. External Factors
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Kelley’s Model of Attribution
Consensus- Involves comparing an individual’s behavior with that of his or her peers.- High consistency indicates an individual is NOT different from peers.Distinctiveness - Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on one task with the behavior or accomplishments from other tasks. - Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situation where the current behavior or result is significantly different from typical behavior or results on other tasks.
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Kelley’s Model of Attribution (Cont.)
Consistency- Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on a given task over time.- High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same, time after time.
Predictions - Internal or personal attributions are made when a behavior is associated with low consensus and distinctiveness, and high consistency. - External or environmental attributions are made when a behavior is related with high consensus and distinctiveness, and low consistency.
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4-11 Figure 4-2
Consensus
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People
Ind
ivid
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erf
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A B C D EPeople
Ind
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erf
orm
anc
eA B C D E
Low High
Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.
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4-12 Figure 4-2
Distinctiveness
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Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.
Tasks
Ind
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erf
orm
anc
e
A B C D ETasks
Ind
ivid
ual P
erf
orm
anc
e
A B C D E
Low High
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4-13 Figure 4-2
Consistency
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Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.
Time
Ind
ivid
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erf
orm
anc
e
Time
Ind
ivid
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erf
orm
anc
e
Low High
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Attributional Tendencies
Fundamental attribution bias- ignoring environment factors that affect behavior
Self-serving bias- taking more personal responsibility for success than failure
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Personality Types
If you are an Extravert, you prefer your energy to flow outwards, and your attention is naturally drawn to the outer world of action. Because you focus outwards, you tend to become talkative and you develop many different interests.
Extraverts often think out loud.
Picture of Extravert: enjoying coffee with friends; testing ideas through discussion.
Analogy: rock skipping across a lake - touching many parts of the water, but none too deeply.
Common Qualities of Extraverts:· Attracted to many different things· Like to talk, sometimes without thinking· Like to get involved, make it happen
If you are an Introvert, you prefer your energy to flow inwards, and your attention is naturally drawn to the inner world of understanding. Because you focus inwards, you tend to become more thoughtful, and your interests are deeper.
Introverts tend to keep their thoughts to themselves.
Picture of Introvert: thinking about something; making sure it "fits" before sharing with others.
Analogy: rock tossed into a pond - hitting once and sinking deeply.
Common Qualities of Introverts:· Attracted to in-depth analysis· Like to think, sometimes without talking· Like to understand
If you are a Sensor, you prefer to learn about your world through your five senses. Because you focus on what you can actually see or hear or touch, you develop a practical and realistic outlook on the world.
Picture of Sensor: paying attention to details; reading the fine print in a contract.
Analogy: magnifying glass - making sure of the details.
Common Qualities of Sensing Types:· Notice Details· Practical - interested in WHETHER it will work· Tangible - like to have results· Predictable - when learning something new, like to start at the beginning and work through to the end· Pragmatic - stick to the tried and true
If you are an Intuitive, you prefer to go beyond your senses and focus on the meaning of the information. You are more future oriented; you see beyond the present (i.e., are insightful) and rather than being practical, you are more likely to be creative.
Picture of Intuitive: looking upwards; seeking a broad perspective; wide angle vision.
Analogy: binoculars - making sure of the "big picture."
Common Qualities of Intuitive Types:· Notice the whole picture· Theoretical - interested in WHY it works· Creative - like to experiment
If you are a Thinker, you make decisions based on principles and logic. Because you treat everyone the same, you are fair and businesslike. You value justice.
Thinkers ask these questions when deciding: "Is it logical? Can I support the decision in principle? Is it the RIGHT thing to do?"
Picture of a Thinker: thinking about a decision; what is fair? Is this the right decision?
Analogy: head versus the heart.
Common Qualities of Thinking Types:· Appreciate analysis· Quick to give advice· Businesslike· Fair and just - same rules for all
If you are a Feeler, you make decisions based on how they will impact someone's life. Because you treat everyone individually, you are compassionate. You value mercy.
Feelers ask these questions when deciding: "Do I feel OK about it? How will it affect someone else? Is it what I WANT to do?"
Picture of a Feeler: two hearts; one caring for the other; sensitive to other's feelings.
Analogy: heart versus the head.
Common Qualities of Feeling Types:· Appreciate sensitivity· Quick to give support· Personable· Merciful - individual circumstances noted
If you are a Perceptive, you prefer to postpone decisions so more information can be found. Sometimes you actually delay something so you get an extra burst of "anxious" energy to help finish the job. Since you dislike deciding, you tend to become very adaptable.
Picture of a Perceptive: a two-way road sign indicates flexibility; able to change directions.
Analogy: starting the race as opposed to finishing it. At the start, anything is possible.
Common Qualities of Perceptive Types:· Are comfortable with "winging it"· Like to have an open-ended approach· Postpone decisions - sometimes procrastinate
If you are a Judger, you prefer to decide quickly, and therefore you naturally organize your world. You are good at making decisions and feel uncomfortable when things are "left up in the air."
You enjoy accomplishing tasks by setting goals, and you have the discipline to achieve them.
Picture of a Judger: hitting the target; getting the job done; accomplishing things.
Analogy: Finishing the race as opposed to starting it; all has been decided by the end.
Common Qualities of Judging Types:· They are comfortable when everything is organized· Like to have a time-framed schedule· Decide quickly· Methodical - make a plan, use it
5-1 Figure 5-1
An OB Model for Studying Individual Differences
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Personalitytraits
Self Concept• Self-esteem• Self-efficacy
• Self-monitoring
The Unique Individual Forms of Self- Expression
Attitudes
Abilities
Emotions
Self-Management
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Self-concept is a person’s self-perception as a physical, social, spiritual being.
Cognitions are a person’s knowledge, opinions, or beliefs.
Self-esteem is one’s overall self-evaluation.
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From Self-Concept to Self-Management
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5-3
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Skills & Best Practices: How to Build Self-Esteem in Yourself and Others
1. Live consciously
2. Be self-accepting
3. Take personal responsibility
4. Be self-assertive
5. Live purposefully
6. Have personal integrity
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Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to do a task
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Self-Efficacy (“I can do that.”)
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5-5 Figure 5-2
Self-Efficacy Beliefs Pave the Way for Success or Failure
McGraw-Hill
Priorexperience
Behaviormodels
PersuasionFrom
Others
AssessmentOf PhysicalEmotional
State
Sources of Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Feedback Results
High
“I know I can do this job
Self-efficacy
Beliefs
Low
“I don’t think I can get the job
done.”
BehaviorPatterns
BehaviorPatterns
Success
Failure
Self-monitoring is observing one’s own behavior and adapting it to the situation
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Self-Monitoring
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5-7 Figure 5-3
A Social Learning Model of Self-Management
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Person
(Psychological self)
Situational cues Consequences
Behavior
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5-8 Table 5-1
Covey’s Seven Habits: An Agenda forManagerial Self-Improvement
1. Be proactive
2. Being with the end in mind
3. Put first things first
4. Think win/win
5. Seek first to understand, then to be understood
6. Synergize
7. Sharpen the saw
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5-9 Table 5-2
The Big Five Personality Dimensions
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Intellectual, imaginative, curious, broad-minded
Openness to experience
Relaxed, secure, unworriedEmotional stability
Trusting, good-natured, cooperative, softhearted
Agreeableness
Outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive
Extraversion
CharacteristicsPersonality Dimension
Dependable, responsible, achievement oriented, persistent
Conscientiousness
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A Proactive Personality is an action-oriented person who shows initiative and perseveres to change things.
5-10
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Proactive Personality
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5-11
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Locus of Control
External locus of control: One’s life outcomes attributed to environmental factors such as luck or fate.
Internal locus of control: belief that one controls key events and consequences in one’s life.
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5-12
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Skills & Best Practices: How Lucky People Make Their Own Luck
1. Maximize chance opportunities
2. Listen to your lucky hunches
3. Expect good fortune
4. Turn bad luck into good
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5-13 Table 5-3
Seven Major Mental Abilities
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Able to perceive spatial patterns and to visualize how geometric shapes would look if transformed in shape and position
Spatial
Ability to make quick and accurate arithmetic computations such as adding and subtracting
Numerical
Ability to produce isolated words that fulfill symbolic or structural requirements
Word fluency
Understanding what words mean and readily comprehending what is read
Verbal comprehension
DescriptionAbility
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5-14 Table 5-3
Seven Major Mental Abilities (Cont.)
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Ability to reason from specifics to general conclusions
Inductive reasoning
Ability to perceive figures, identify similarities and differences, and carry out tasks involving visual perception
Perceptual speed
DescriptionAbility
Having good memory for paired words, symbols, lists of numbers, or other associated items
Memory
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5-15
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Positive and Negative Emotions
Negative emotions (Goal incongruent):- Anger - Fright/anxiety- Guilt/shame - Sadness- Envy/jealousy - Disgust
Positive emotions (Goal congruent)- Happiness/joy - Pride- Love/affection - Relief
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Emotional Intelligence is the ability to manage oneself and interact with others in mature and constructive ways
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Emotional Intelligence
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5-17
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Skills & Best Practices: How to DevelopPersonal and Social Competence Through
Emotional Intelligence
Personal Competence
• Self-Awareness• Emotional self-awareness• Accurate self-assessment• Self-confidence
• Self-Management• Emotional self-control• Transparency• Adaptability• Achievement• Initiative• Optimism
Social Competence
• Social Awareness• Empathy• Organizational awareness• Service
• Relationship Management• Inspirational leadership• Influence• Developing others• Change catalyst• Conflict management• Building bonds• Teamwork and collaboration
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