Download - Week 1 Introduction to Basic Surveying
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A2.2NP1Environmental Practical 1
TOPIC 1
TECHNIQUES IN BASIC SURVEYING
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Basic ideas
• Surveying - the creation of a scale representation of the ground surface - is a basic activity in many areas of environmental management.
• A survey will be one of of two types:
– Primary survey - to establish the position of objects in three dimensions when no previous information exists
– Secondary survey - to add extra information to existing data or to measure changes over an interval of time
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Basic ideas
• The task of three dimensional position fixing is normally broken into two parts:
Determining plan position
Determining elevation
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Basic ideas
• Each of these determinations may be either: absolute - made in terms of a fixed co-ordinate
system
relative - made in terms of local co-ordinates which may later be converted to absolute co-ordinates if required.
• The majority of surveys carried out for environmental management are thus secondary relative surveys
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Plan Position Fixing
• The plan position of a station can be established in a number of ways:
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By reference to the apparent positions of astronomical objects when viewed from that station
• This method gives the absolute location of the station in terms of latitude and longitude, which can be converted to local systems such as the National Grid.
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By the measurement of the angles between lines of sight to the unknown station from other known positions
By the intersection of lines of sight from the unknown station to other objects whose positions are already known
• These two methods both rely on the simple Euclidean geometry of the plane. (Hence the term plane surveying). The first procedure is termed triangulation and the second resection.
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BaselineA B
The basic principle of triangulation
Measured angle Measured angle
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Unknown position
The basic principle of resection
Measuredangle
Measuredangle
Known position
Known positionKnown position
Measuredangle
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By measurement of distances between the unknown station and other objects of known positions
• This last method includes a number of particular cases:
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measurements of offset distances from a base line.
trilateration - the distance equivalent of triangulation.
tacheometry - an optical method of distance measurement along a known bearing
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BaselineA B
The basic principle of trilateration
Measured sideMeasured side
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Plane Surveying: Theory
• Plane surveying relies on the basic concepts of Euclidean geometry, and in particular the properties of triangles.
• The most important (for our purposes) of these are:
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Plane Surveying: Theory
The internal angles of a triangle sum to 180 The sides of an equilateral triangle are equal
and the internal angles are all 60°
The base angles and opposing sides of an isosceles triangle are equal
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60º
60º 60º
The equilateral triangleAll sides equal in lengthAll angles equal (= 60º)
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The isosceles triangleTwo sides equal in lengthTwo angles equal
a a
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Plane Surveying: Theory
If the respective angles in two triangles are equal then the triangles are similar and their sides are all in the same proportion
If two triangles have two angles and one side equal (or vice versa) then they are congruent and all their other respective angles and sides are equal.
Two triangles are also congruent if all their sides are equal.
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Similar triangles have corresponding angles equalbut are of differing size
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Conguent triangles are identical
• two angles and one side equal• two sides and one angle equal• all three sides equal
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Plane Surveying: Theory
• Congruent triangles are unique - you cannot draw two different triangles from the same set of measurements
• This means that a complete set of survey data must define the positions of objects uniquely.
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Plane Surveying: Theory
Any closed polygon can be subdivided into a series of contiguous triangles
• These properties are repeatedly used in the procedure of triangulation in which stations are surveyed in a pattern of contiguous triangles.
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Any closed polygon can be subdivided into contiguous triangles
These should be chosen to make as many of the triangles asclose to equilateral as possible
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Plane surveying: practical aspects
• In practice, most plane surveys are carried out in a straightforward way following an established sequence:
1. A reconnaisance survey will establish the dimensions of the area, relative levels, significant features, accessibility, obstacles etc
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Plane surveying: practical aspects
2. Establish an accurate baseline by measurement from existing survey points, natural features, buildings etc. If none are available then the baseline must be fixed by absolute methods.
3. Establish as required any further control points by triangulation or trilateration from the base-line.
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Plane surveying: practical aspects
4. Incorporate detail by tacheometry, traversing, tape & offset or whatever other method is appropriate.
5. The intermediate stations should where appropriate be cross-checked with the control points by resection and all traverses should be closed at a control point.
6. Inaccessible detail should be incorporated by triangulation or plane tabling from the ends of the baseline.
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Baseline
ILLUSTRATION OF THE USE OF OFFSETS
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Plane surveying: practical aspects
7. If a topographic survey is being undertaken, levelling traverses should be carried out around the survey stations and the baseline tied to the local benchmark by a closed traverse.
8. The use of a theodolite or total station will enable both the position and the elevation of stations to be found simultaneously by combined tacheometry and triangulation or by trilateration
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THE “CHAIN” SURVEY
How to establish relative plan positions
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Chain survey
• Simplest of all survey techniques
• Relies on linear measurements; slopes >3o require some adjustment to technique
• Usually requires a clear line of sight
• The triangles used should be equilateral or approximately so
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Terminology
• Trilateration is the measurement of sides of a triangle
• whereas triangulation refers to the measurement of the angles of the triangle
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Basic equipment
• Ranging poles
• Survey pegs and ‘arrows’
• Chain & tape measure or other distance measuring instrument
• Plumb line
• Compass
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Chain survey components
• Base line: the longest line
• Chain /survey lines
• Survey stations
• Offset lines
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Order of events
• “Range out” survey stations with ranging rods
• Establish base line and measure accurately
• Measure remaining distances between other survey stations
• Measure offset lines whilst measuring between survey stations
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Sloping ground
• If the ground slopes by more than about 3°, this must be allowed for in the survey.
• The measured distances are thus slant distances and must be corrected to true horizontal distances.
• This requires that the vertical angle between the stations is known
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Ground distance determined
a
h
X
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Sloping ground
• For an approximate survey, it may be sufficient to step up or downhill using a series of horizontal and vertical lines
• If the drop is measured at the same time, some estimate of the slope profile can be obtained
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Chain surveying (“stepping”)
w
x
y
z
c
b
a
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Sloping ground
• If stepping is not appropriate, more sophisticated methods must be used to measure the slant distance and the vertical angle simultaneously
• Requires optical sighting equipment: usually either a clinometer, Abney level or theodolite
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Basic levelling in chain surveys
ah
h
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Correcting for horizontal distance:the “hypotenusal allowance”
a
h
z
correction factor = xy - yz
= xy(1 - cosa)
y
x
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LEVELLING
How to destermine relative elevations
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Levelling: accounting for slopes
Unlike chain surveys, levelling surveys account directly for slope and incorporate this data into the whole measurement exercise
AIMS:• to determine height differences between
two points• to determine elevations for sections
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• The elevation of a station can be established by:
inclined line of sight from chain survey stations
levelling from another point of known height
by inclined tacheometry
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• Levelling is the more accurate method but is also the slower. Modern instruments are capable of cm accuracy under normal conditions over distances of 100’s metres.
• The keys to successful levelling lie in the setting up of the instrument, in the closure of the traverses and in the careful recording (booking) of the results.
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• Inclined tacheometry relies on the combined measurement, by theodolite, of the slant distance to the new station and the angle relative to the horizontal.
• The elevation change and horizontal distance can then be found by simple trigonometry.
• The accuracy of the method, using normal instruments, is around 10’s cms in 100’s metres.
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Direct levelling
• Most typical form used
Relies upon:
• a horizontal line of sight, also termed “the line of collimation”
• a fixed datum level
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Measurements to be taken
• Backsight
• Foresight
• Intermediate sights
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Booking your results
The “rise and fall” method
• This method records the relative change in level between successive stations
• The changes are converted to the reduced level of each station
• The reduced level is relative to the local datum
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Booking the results
• The method relies on recording your results in a survey book in a standard format
• This allows you to check your work and to identify any errors systematically
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Reduced levels
The change of level is 2.312m - 2.533m = -0.221m
2.533m
Datum line: 100.522m(from OS Benchmark)
2.312 m
The reduced level of point B is 100.301m
B A
The absolute (datum) level of point A is 100.522m
IP 1
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Backsight Interm.Foresight Rise Fall R.L. DistanceRemarks
2.312 100.5220.221 100.301
1.2
Rise and fall booking
Point A
Point B
-2.533
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Transfer of level
The new change of level is 1.674m - 1.631m = + 0.043m
1.631m
1.674 m
The absolute level of point C is 100.344m
C B
At the next stage, B becomes the backsight and C is the new foresight
IP 2
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Backsight Interm.Foresight Rise Fall R.L. DistanceRemarks
2.312 100.522- 0.221 100.301
1.2
Rise and fall booking (cont)
Point A
Point B-
2.5331.6741.631 + 0.043 100.344 Point C
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• Continuing this process, suppose we end up with a set of results as follows:
• This will enable us to check our working
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Backsight Interm.Foresight Rise Fall R.L. DistanceRemarks
2.312 100.522- 0.221 100.301
Rise and fall booking (cont)
Point A
Point B
--
2.5331.6741.631 + 0.043 100.344 Point C2.504
3.0102.413
0.9562.0162.718
----
--
--
+ 1.548+ 0.994
-0.305
101.892102.886
-- --
--
--
102.581
11.913
9.854
9.854 2.585
- 0.526
- 0.526 102.581
- 100.5222.059 2.059 2.059 CHECKS
OK
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Using an intermediate sight
• Sometimes we wish to include a specific feature but it is not convenient to set up a new instrument position for this
• The solution is to take a sighting onto the staff when it is placed on this feature - this is called an intermediate sight
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Intermediate sight
The new change of level is 1.674m - 2.988m = -1.314m
2.988m
The absolute level of the intermediate point C is 98.987m
C B
The intermediate sight is taken at the base of the channel between B and C
IP 2
Intermediate sight 1.674m
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Backsight Interm.Foresight Rise Fall R.L. DistanceRemarks
2.312 100.522- 0.221 100.301
1.2
Rise and fall booking (intermediate sight)
Point A
Point B-
2.5331.674
1.631 + 0.043 100.344 Point C
2.988 channel-1.314 98.987
Next FS
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Optical distance measurement
• It is often convenient to use the levelling instrument itself to calculate the distance between the instrument and staff positions
• This is done using the stadia lines that are visible in the viewfinder
• These are arranged such that the distance to the staff is 100x the stadia interval that is read on the staff between the two lines
• This procedure is known as tacheometry
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Tacheometry
The viewfinder:
Stadialines
Multiply vertical distance by 100to obtain horizontal distance
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Inclined tacheometry
• If the ‘level’ can be swung in a vertical arc, the distance up an inclined sight line can be obtained.
• If the vertical angle is also measured, the slant distance can be converted to give both the change in height and the true horizontal distance.
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Inclined tacheometry
a
Change of height
Tacheometric distance
Measured angle
True horizontal distance
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The theodolite
• If such an instrument can also be swung in a horizontal arc, and the angle of rotation can be measured, we are able to determine the angles of the sight lines between stations.
• This allows both trilateration and triangulation with the same instrument.
• Such a versatile instrument exist and is called a theodolite.
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Summary
• Chain surveys are suited to planimetric surveys on low slopes. They rely upon trilateration.
• Levelling is used where terrain is more uneven. Levelling surveys often use tacheometry to fix station positions.
• A theodolite survey permits levelling, tacheometry or triangulation as required.