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We have considered the spinal cord and the PNS…so
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…to the brain! Many ways to organize the brain
Here’s a good one!
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How about this one?
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Let’s start with this one.
Brainstem
Midbrain
Basal Forebrain
Thalamus, hypothalamus, Basal ganglia, limbic system
Cerebral Cortex
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BRAINSTEM/ HINDBRAIN
MAJOR STRUCTURES-
Medulla Oblongata
Cerebellum and Pons
“The Reticular Formation” (sometimes called the reticular activating system)
A “Mid-sagital view”
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functions of the Medulla Oblongata- focus on the Vagus nerve..
• All parasympathetic tone– HR
• Temp
• BP
• Etc
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Brainstem:The “Reticular activating system”
Many tiny brain nuclei collectively involved in modulation of arousal
brain nuclei- refers to organized groupings of neuron cell bodies
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Representative Nuclei of The RAS- the Locus Coereleus
The LC Projects to cerebral cortex- critical in cognitive orienting
Projects – a term referring to the connection path of axons from one nuclei to other brain nuclei
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RAS- the Raphe Nucleus
Raphe Nucleus – High in Serotonin (5HT)
involved in Modulation of mood, sleep states, dreaming…SSRIs primary site of action.
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BRAINSTEM-Pons and Cerebellum
In general the cerebellum acts to produce automatic coordination of behavior and behavioral sequences.
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Midbrain
Major structures of interest:
Substantia nigra- high Dopamine (DA) content- critical in voluntary movement
Peri-aqueductal grey (PAG) - high in endorphin content- modulation of pain
Ventral tegmental area (VTA)- high in DA content- critical in “wanting/cravings” components of behavior
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Midbrain-
The ventral tegmental area
(VTA)
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VTA to Nucleus Accumbens: The Mesolimbic Dopamine pathway-
Wanting or “reward?”
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Basal Forebrain Structures
Thalamus and Hypothalamus (Diencephalon)
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The Thalamus
The thalamus relays sensory information from sense organs to the cerebral cortex
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The Hypothalamus
Rostral and slightly inferior to the thalamus.
- Involved in modulation of the 4 F’s
Fighting
Fleeing (flight)
Feeding
Mating
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BASAL FOREBRAIN• Basal Ganglia- important for initiation and control of
stereotyped/automatic behaviors like walking , arm movements etc…
Neostriatum
Globus Pallidus ( GLOB-us PAL-i-dos)
Substantia nigra…? Isn’t this part of the midbrain?
Yes, but is functionally part of the basal ganglia
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Nigro-striatal Dopamine system
The substantia nigra projects to the striatum
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• Parkinsons’- progress cell death/loss in the substantia nigra
Slowness of movement (bradykinesia)
Shuffling gait
Stiffness (rigidity)
Tremor
Loss of balance (postural instability)
Speech and facial expression
Damage to the Nigro-striatal DA system?
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Typical Parkinsons’
MOST DIFFICULT SYMPTOM-
Difficulty in initiation and/or changing of behaviorFor this reason we can think of the nigro-striatal DA pathway to NORMALLY be critical for…..
Behavior initiation, the green light system, the behavioral “grease.”
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**of interest?? TREMORS AT REST
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When things go wrong in the Globus pallidus ??
• Huntington's Chorea- uncontrollable continuous snake-like, dance-like writhing movements, involving the entire body
Basal Ganglia- The Globus Pallidus
Critical for inhibiting stray/unauthorized behaviors
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• Huntington's Chorea is principally characterized by hyperkinesias - abnormal, purposeless, involuntary motor movements that can occur spontaneously or only when the patient is trying to do something. These movements may be repetitive or non-repetitive.
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When things go wrong in the Globus pallidus ??
Tourettes Syndrome- Tics
TS usually becomes apparent in children between ages 2 to 15, with approximately 50% of patients affected by age 7. The age of symptom onset is typically before the age of 18. TS is more frequent in males than females by a ratio of about 3 or 4 to 1. The disorder is thought to affect 0.1% to 1.0% of individuals in the general population.
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Tourettes Syndrome
• TS usually becomes apparent in children between ages 2 to 15, with approximately 50% of patients affected by age 7. The age of symptom onset is typically before the age of 18. TS is more frequent in males than females by a ratio of about 3 or 4 to 1. The disorder is thought to affect 0.1% to 1.0% of individuals in the general population.
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Tourettes• Motor tics
Initially, patients develop sudden, rapid, recurrent, involuntary movements (motor tics), particularly of the head and facial area. At symptom onset, motor tics usually consist of abrupt, brief, isolated movements known as simple motor tics, such as repeated eye blinking or facial twitching. Simple motor tics may also include repeated neck stretching, head jerking, or shoulder shrugging. Less commonly, motor tics are more "coordinated," with distinct movements involving several muscle groups, such as repetitive squatting, skipping, or hopping. These tics, referred to as complex motor tics, may also include repetitive touching of others, deep knee bending, jumping, smelling of objects, hand gesturing, head shaking, leg kicking, or turning in a circle. In addition to affecting the head and facial area, motor tics also affect other parts of the body, such as the shoulders, torso, arms, and legs. The anatomical locations of motor tics may change over time. Rarely, motor tics evolve to include behaviors that may result in self-injury, such as excessive scratching and lip biting.
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Vocal tics
•Vocal tics are sudden, involuntary, recurrent, often relatively loud vocalizations. Vocal tics usually begin as single, simple sounds that may eventually progress to involve more complex phrases and vocalizations. For example, patients may initially develop simple vocal tics, including grunting, throat clearing, sighing, barking, hissing, sniffing, tongue clicking, or snorting. Complex vocal tics may involve repeating certain phrases or words out of context, one's own words or sounds (palilalia), or the last words or phrases spoken
by others (echolalia). Rarely, there may be involuntary, explosive cursing or compulsive utterance of obscene words or phrases (coprolalia).
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Other Basal Ganglia related disorders
Balisms
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LIMBIC SYSTEM
• Interconnected• Affective impulses• low consciousness• Reciprocally connected with frontal cortex
– Many structures• Hippocampus• Amygdala• Nucleus accumbens
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View of some limbic system structures
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Hippocampus (seahorse?)
Based on early neuroanatomical observations and studies with psychoactive drugs, the septohippocampal circuit has been proposed as a model for anxiety disorders.
Note*-Memory processes can be profoundly affected by life experiences. In particular, stress has proved to be a major modulator of memory function.1–4
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Hippocampus and Memory: “H.M.”
Henry Gustav Molaison, lost completely the ability to form new memories following a radical surgical procedure to treat his severe and intractable epilepsy.
profound anterograde and retrograde amnesia
1953; William Scoville, a neurosurgeon removed both of H.M.'s hippocampi in their entirety, together with some of the surrounding structures.
H.M.'s amnesia was so severe that he never recognized Dr. Brenda Milner, despite working with her for more than 50 years.
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View of some limbic system structures
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The Amygdala receives input from many other brain areas that would logically allow evaluation of
emotional significance of experiences
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CORTEX
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CEREBRAL CORTEX
• Wrinkled
• Thin
• Layered
• Interconnected• Plastic ( consider vs brainstem)
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Cortical hemispheres
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Corpus collosum
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Functional asymmetries?Roughly 90% of right handers, and 70% of left handers
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Assertions based on data
Left hemisphere- analytical, rational, verbal, reading, writing ,mathRight Hemisphere- Intuitive, feeling, spatial processing, nonverbal, music
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LOBES- gyri and sulci
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OCCIPITAL LOBEprimary visual processing-
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Temporal Lobes
Primary auditory cortex
Hearing Understanding language
(receptive language) Higher visual processing
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Parietal Lobes
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Parietal Lobe
Primary somatosensory cortex Visuo-spatial processing
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Primary Somatosensory CtxThe sensory homunculus
The “post central gyrus”
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Somatosagnosias-perception of reality depends on CTX
Unilateral neglectanosagnosias
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RX for Phantom limb- awareness arises from cortex independently of reality.
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FRONTAL LOBES
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Primary motor cortex-precentral gyrus
more later
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Frontal Lobe functionsVolitional behavior
Speech
Inhibition of impulses
Self-control/temptationsSelf-initiative
Planning/anticipation
Self-monitoring
Awareness (abilities and limitations)
Attention
Mental flexibility
Problem solving
Complex Judgments/goal setting
Source monitoring
Self-identity
Copying
Working memory
Temporal memory-sequencing
Emotion
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Suppression of Impulses
• Some scientists contend that the prefrontal cortex normally acts to suppress or act upon urges or impulses perhaps by communicating with other brain areas that mediate fear and aggression, such as the amygdala.