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Watchers of the Skies
How our knowledge and
understanding of the Universe has
increased over the Centuries.
Ian Morison
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Our Understanding of the
Universe
Is the Earth the Centre of the
Universe?
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The Moon
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The
Moons
of
Jupiter
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Saturn
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Venus
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Potolemy’s Geocentric Model
Notice Mercury nearer than Venus!
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1572: Tycho’s Supernova
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The Isle of Hveen
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Tycho’s Castle
- Uraniborg
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Tycho’s
Observatory
Sternberg
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Quadrant
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Can find a star’s position in the sky
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But, for 20 years, he also observed
the positions of the Planets
• He observed the heavens
from ~ 1577 to 1597 and
plotted the motion of the
planets against the fixed
backdrop of the stars
Jupiter and Venus
below the Moon
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Tycho’s final
years• Tycho left Hven in
1597 and in 1599 was
appointed Imperial
Mathematician to
Emperor Rudolph II.
• He was given a choice
of castles (!) and chose
Benakty Castle 40 km
north of Prague
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Johannes Kepler
• Joined Tycho Brahe in 1600.
• He became Imperial
Mathematician after Tycho’s
death in 1601
• From Tycho’s Observations
of the movement of the
planets Kepler deduced the
laws of Planetary Motion.
Third Law
The square of a planet’s
period around the Sun is
proportional to the cube of
its distance from the Sun
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The Size of the Solar System
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• Kepler’s Third Law enables us to make a
superb map of the Solar System –
• BUT it cannot give us a scale.
• If we could find one distance accurately
then we could give the map a scale.
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Measurement of the Astronomical Unit
• In 1672 Cassini observed Mars from Paris whilst a colleague observed
it from French Guiana in South America. They were thus able to
measure its parallax, and hence measure the Earth-Mars distance. Using
Kepler’s third law they were then able to calculate the Earth’s distance
from the Sun.
• Cassini got 140 million km – low but not at all bad.
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Transits
of Venus
• By timing, from locations all
over the Earth, when Venus first
entered the Sun’s limb and then
just before it left, one can
measure the parallax of Venus
and hence find its distance.
• Enke analysed both 18th century
eclipses and derived a value of
95.25 million miles. (152
million km)
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Transits of 1789 and 18th
Century
• Value deduced from 1789 transit was
between 93 and 97 million miles. (149 to
155 km )
• Enke analysed both 18th century eclipses
and deduced 95.25 million miles. (152 km)
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Distance by Radar
• The AU was finally found to high precision by Planetary radars in the US, USSR and UK (using the MK1 Radio-Telescope).
• The result was:
– 149,597,870.691 km
• So just less than 150 million km or 93 million miles.
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Giant Refractors
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Helvelius
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Giant Refractors
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Canals on
Mars?
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The Face on Mars!
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The Reflecting Telescope
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Newton’s Reflecting
Telescope
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William Herschel
and his Telescope
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Uranus
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The discovery of
Neptune
• Urbain Le Verrier
• John Couch Adams
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• As Uranus approached Neptune, their joint attraction ADVANCED the position of Uranus in its orbit.
• As it receded from Neptune, their joint attraction RETARDED the position of Uranus in its orbit until it was back where it would have been without the presence of Neptune.
• Neptune lay beyond the point where where Uranus was most ahead of its predicted track.
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Neptune
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Neptune with Triton
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Clyde
Tombaugh
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Pluto and Charon
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A Planet no more!
• Now given the classification of a “Dwarf
Planet”
• Along with
– Eris - discovered in 2003
– Ceres – the largest body in the asteroid belt
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Eris with its moon
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Distances to the Stars
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The Southern Cross
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Our Galaxy
The Milky Way
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Beyond the Milky Way Galaxy
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Birr
Castle
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M51 – The Whirlpool Galaxy
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How far are the Galaxies?
Step 1:
The distance to the Large Magellanic
Cloud
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The Magellanic Clouds
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Large Magellanic Cloud
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Tarantula
Nebula
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SN 1987A
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Hubble Space Telescope
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SN 1987A
• The ring lit up 230
days after the
supernova exploded
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How far are the Galaxies?
Step 2:
Using Cepheid Variables
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Delta Cepheus
• Nearly two hundred years ago English astronomer
John Goodricke discovered a new type of variable
star in the Cepheus constellation called delta
Cepheid. The star brightness varies regularly with
period 5 days, 8 hours and 48 minutes.
• Delta Cepheid stars are rhythmically breathing in
and out, becoming alternately brighter and dimmer
in the process.
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Henrietta Leavitt 1868 - 1921
• Born in Cambridge Mass, she
studied Astronomy at Radcliffe
College.
• Illness left her very deaf.
• She joined the Harvard
Observatory in 1895 and became
head of the stellar photometry dept.
• She discovered 2400 variable stars
– half of those then known.
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The Cepheid Variables
• Miss Leavitt observed that the Cepheid Variables
had a very regular variation in brightness.
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The Period-Luminosity relationship
• She noticed that the period was related to the luminosity.
• The more luminous stars had longer periods.
• This gave a way of measuring distances to any galaxy in which a cepheid variable could be seen.
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Mt Wilson: Hooker 100” Telescope
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Edwin
Hubble
• Using this
telescope Edwin
Hubble made
one of the most
important
discoveries of
the 20th Century
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The
Andromeda
Galaxy
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A Cepheid
Variable in M31
• A photographic plate taken with the 100 inch Telescope.
• Hubble had discovered a Cepheid Variable!
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• He was able to show that the Andromeda
galaxy was far beyond our own Milky Way
galaxy.
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Velocities of recession
• Slipher had measured the speed at which 23 galaxies were moving away (they showed a redshift) or towards us (they showed a blueshift)
• Most were moving away from us.
• Hubble combined these data with his distance measurements
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Hubble Diagram
V = H x R where H = Hubble’s Constant
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An Expanding Universe
• Hubble had showed that the universe was
expanding
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The Age of the Universe
• If the universe is increasing in size with time, then
it would have been smaller in the past.
• If we assume that the expansion has been linear
we can back track to the time when the universe
had no size.
• Its origin in the Big Bang!
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The Age of the Universe
• Given the value Hubble got for his constant:
– 500 km/sec/Mpc
• The age is ~ 2,000 million years
• This worried people!
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Hale 200”at
Mount Palomar
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Walter Baade
His Value of H:
250 (km/sec)/MPc
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Very Large Telescope
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Barred
Spirals
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The Universe
Groups and Clusters of Galaxies
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The Andromeda Galaxy
of our Local Group of Galaxies
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M33
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Magellanic Clouds
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Hercules Cluster
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Coma Cluster
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Dark Matter
• Fritz Zwicky observed that the cluster must contain several times more mass that could be observed in the stars.
• No one believed him!
• But he has since been proven to have been right.
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Galaxy
Cluster
Abell 1689
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How can we measure distances
beyond the range of Cepheid
Variable Stars?
Beyond ~64 million light years we
need to observe brighter “standard
candles”
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Observations of Distant Type Ia
Supernovae
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Type 1a Supernovae
• Matter falling onto a “white dwarf” star
gradually increases its mass.
• It cannot support a mass of more than ~1.4
solar masses.
• When it reaches this mass it explodes!
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Type Ia Supernova
As they are very bright we can see them at
very great distances.
We believe that they all will have the same
peak brightness.
So we can use them as “standard candles”.
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These enable
astronomers
to extend
distance
measurements
out to far
greater
distances
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Distant
Galaxies
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Dark Energy
• These observations showed that the
Universe is bigger than was expected.
• It appears that some “pressure” called dark
energy is making the Universe expand at an
ever faster rate!
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Hubble Deep Field
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Hubble
Ultra-Deep
Field
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Galaxy Distribution Map
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How Far Back in Time can we see?
Observations of the
Cosmic Microwave Background
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Penzias and
Wilson
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Pigeon Trap
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VSA on Mount Teide
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VSA Map
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WMAP
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Planck
Spacecraft
• Launch August
2008
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We get a
consistent model
• ~4-5 % Normal Matter
• ~23% Dark Matter
• ~73% Dark Energy
• Age of Universe: ~
13.7 Billion Years
• The pressure produced by
the Dark Energy is now
making the expansion rate
of the Universe
INCREASE with time.
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The Far Future
• As the clusters of Galaxies move further apart carried ever faster by the expansion of the space between them there will be less and less for astronomers to see.
• We live at the best possible time to learn about the Universe
• I do hope that you will join me in this quest over the next three years.