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IntroductionIndividual Differences in Human FunctioningAssessment of Psychological AttributesIntelligenceTheories of Intelligence

Theory of Multiple IntelligencesTriarchic Theory of IntelligencePlanning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous- successive Model of Intelligence

Individual Differences in IntelligenceVariations of IntelligenceSome Misuses of Intelligence Tests (Box 1.1)

Culture and IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence

Characteristics of Emotionally IntelligentPersons (Box 1.2)

Special AbilitiesAptitude : Nature and Measurement

Creativity

CONTENTS

Key TermsSummaryReview QuestionsProject IdeasWeblinksPedagogical Hints

After reading this chapter, you would be able to:understand psychological attributes on which people differ from each other,learn about different methods that are used to assess psychological attributes,explain what constitutes intelligent behaviour,learn how psychologists assess intelligence to identify mentally challengedand gifted individuals,understand how intelligence has different meaning in different cultures, andunderstand the difference between intelligence and aptitude.

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exemplifies a typical combination ofvarious traits. The question which you maylike to pose is how and why people differ.This, in fact, is the subject matter of thestudy of individual differences. Forpsychologists, individual differences refer todistinctiveness and variations amongpeople’s characteristics and behaviourpatterns.

While many psychologists believe thatour behaviours are influenced by ourpersonal traits, some others hold the viewthat our behaviours are influenced more bysituational factors. This latter view isknown as situationism, which states thatsituations and circumstances in which oneis placed influence one’s behaviour. Aperson, who is generally aggressive, maybehave in a submissive manner in thepresence of her/his top boss. Sometimes,the situational influences are so powerfulthat individuals with differing personalitytraits respond to them in almost the sameways. The situationist perspective viewshuman behaviour as resulting frominteraction of external and internal factors.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN

FUNCTIONING

Individual variations are common withinand across all species. Variations addcolour and beauty to nature. For amoment, think of a world around youwhere each and every object is of the samecolour, say red or blue or green. How wouldthe world appear to you? Certainly not abeautiful one! Would you prefer to live insuch a world? In all likelihood, youranswer will be ‘no’. Like objects, people toopossess different combinations of traits.

Variability is a fact of nature, andindividuals are no exception to this. Theyvary in terms of physical characteristics,such as height, weight, strength, haircolour, and so on. They also vary alongpsychological dimensions. They may beintelligent or dull, dominant or submissive,creative or not so creative, outgoing orwithdrawn, etc. The list of variations canbe endless. Different traits can exist invarying degrees in an individual. In thissense, each one of us is unique as s/he

If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how theydiffer from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, asalso in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences canbe noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious.In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are appliedto understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ,what brings about these differences, and how such differences can beassessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern psychologyhas been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. Thischapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individualdifferences.

One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been ofinterest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other intheir ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn fromexperience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles.In this chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitionsof intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations inthe intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilitiesor aptitudes.

Introduction

Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 3

ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

ATTRIBUTES

Psychological attributes are involved invery simple phenomena like in time takento react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time,and also in highly global concepts likehappiness. It is difficult to count andspecify the number of psychologicalattributes that can be assessed.Assessment is the first step inunderstanding a psychological attribute.Assessment refers to the measurement ofpsychological attributes of individuals andtheir evaluation, often using multiplemethods in terms of certain standards ofcomparison. Any attribute will be said toexist in a person only if it can be measuredby using scientific procedures. Forexample, when we say, “Harish isdominant”, we are referring to the degreeof ‘dominance’ in Harish. This statement isbased on our own assessment of‘dominance’ in him. Our assessment maybe informal or formal. Formal assessmentis objective, standardised, and organised.On the other hand, informal assessmentvaries from case to case and from oneassessor to another and, therefore, is opento subjective interpretations. Psychologistsare trained in making formal assessmentof psychological attributes.

Once assessment is done, we can usethis information to predict how Harish willprobably behave in future. We may predictthat Harish, if given a chance to lead ateam, will most likely be an authoritarianleader. If the predicted consequence is notwhat we want, we may want to interveneto effect a change in Harish’s behaviour.The attribute chosen for assessmentdepends upon our purpose. In order tohelp a weak student perform well inexaminations, we may assess her/hisintellectual strengths and weaknesses. If aperson fails to adjust with members of her/

his family and neighbourhood, we mayconsider assessing her/his personalitycharacteristics. For a poorly motivatedperson, we may assess her/his interestsand preferences. Psychological assessmentuses systematic testing procedures toevaluate abilities, behaviours, and personalqualities of individuals.

Some Domains of PsychologicalAttributes

Psychological attributes are not linear orunidimensional. They are complex andexpressed in terms of dimensions. A lineis a mere aggregate of many points. A pointoccupies no space. But think of a box. Itoccupies space. It can be described only interms of its three dimensions, i.e. length,width, and height. Similar is the case withpsychological attributes. They are usuallymulti-dimensional. If you want to have acomplete assessment of a person, you willneed to assess how s/he functions invarious domains or areas, such ascognitive, emotional, social, etc.

We will discuss in this chapter someimportant attributes that are of interest topsychologists. These attributes arecategorised on the basis of varieties of testsused in psychological literature.1. Intelligence is the global capacity to

understand the world, think rationally,and use available resources effectivelywhen faced with challenges. Intelligencetests provide a global measure of aperson’s general cognitive competenceincluding the ability to profit fromschooling. Generally, students havinglow intelligence are not likely to do sowell in school-related examinations, buttheir success in life is not associatedonly with their intelligence test scores.

2. Aptitude refers to an individual’sunderlying potential for acquiring skills.Aptitude tests are used to predict whatan individual will be able to do if given

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proper environment and training. Aperson with high mechanical aptitudecan profit from appropriate training andcan do well as an engineer. Similarly,a person having high language aptitudecan be trained to be a good writer.

3. Interest is an individual’s preference forengaging in one or more specificactivities relative to others. Assessmentof interests of students may help todecide what subjects or courses theycan pursue comfortably and withpleasure. Knowledge of interests helpsus in making choices that promote lifesatisfaction and performance on jobs.

4. Personality refers to relatively enduringcharacteristics of a person that makeher or him distinct from others.Personality tests try to assess anindividual’s unique characteristics, e.g.whether one is dominant or submissive,outgoing or withdrawn, moody oremotionally stable, etc. Personalityassessment helps us to explain anindividual’s behaviour and predict howshe/he will behave in future.

5. Values are enduring beliefs about anideal mode of behaviour. A personhaving a value sets a standard forguiding her/his actions in life and alsofor judging others. In value assessment,we try to determine the dominantvalues of a person (e.g., political,religious, social or economic).

Assessment Methods

Several methods are used for psychologicalassessment. You have learnt about someof these methods in Class XI. Let us recalltheir key features.• Psychological Test is an objective

and standardised measure of anindividual’s mental and/or behaviouralcharacteristics. Objective tests havebeen developed to measure all thedimensions of psychological attributes(e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.)described above. These tests are widely

used for the purposes of clinicaldiagnosis, guidance, personnelselection, placement, and training.Besides objective tests, psychologistshave also developed certain projectivetests, especially for the assessment ofpersonality. You will learn about themin Chapter 2.

• Interview involves seeking informationfrom a person on a one-to-one basis. Youmay see it being used when acounsellor interacts with a client, asalesperson makes a door -to-doorsurvey regarding the usefulness of aparticular product, an employer selectsemployees for her/his organisation, or ajournalist interviews important peopleon issues of national and internationalimportance.

• Case Study is an in-depth study of theindividual in terms of her/hispsychological attributes, psychologicalhistory in the context of her/hispsychosocial and physical environment.Case studies are widely used byclinical psychologists. Case analyses ofthe lives of great people can also behighly illuminating for those willing tolearn from their life experiences.Case studies are based on datagenerated by different methods, e.g.interview, observation, questionnaire,psychological tests, etc.

• Observation involves employingsystematic, organised, and objectiveprocedures to record behaviouralphenomena occurring naturally in realtime. Certain phenomena such asmother-child interactions can be easilystudied through observation. The majorproblems with observational methodsare that the observer has little controlover the situation and the reports maysuffer from subjective interpretations ofthe observer.

• Self-Report is a method in which aperson provides factual informationabout herself/himself and/or opinions,


beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Suchinformation may be obtained byusing an interview schedule or aquestionnaire, a psychological test, ora personal diary.

INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is a key construct employed toknow how individuals differ from oneanother. It also provides an understandingof how people adapt their behaviouraccording to the environment they live in.In this section, you will read aboutintelligence in its various forms.

Psychological notion of intelligence isquite different from the common sensicalnotion of intelligence. If you watch anintelligent person, you are likely to see inher/him attributes like mental alertness,ready wit, quickness in learning, andability to understand relationships. TheOxford Dictionary explains intelligence asthe power of perceiving, learning,understanding, and knowing. Earlyintelligence theorists also used theseattributes in defining intelligence. AlfredBinet was one of the first psychologistswho worked on intelligence. He definedintelligence as the ability to judge well,understand well, and reason well.Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are mostwidely used, understood intelligence interms of its functionality, i.e. its value foradaptation to environment. He defined it asthe global and aggregate capacity of anindividual to think rationally, actpurposefully, and to deal effectively withher/his environment. Other psychologists,such as Gardner and Sternberg havesuggested that an intelligent individual notonly adapts to the environment, but alsoactively modifies or shapes it. You will beable to understand the concept ofintelligence and how it has evolved, when

we discuss some important theories ofintelligence.

Activity1.1

Discovering the Attributes ofIntelligent Persons

1. Who is the most intelligent of yourclassmates? Think of her/him inyour mind’s eye, and write downa few words/phrases describingthat person.

2. Think of 3 other persons in yourimmediate environment, whomyou consider intelligent, and writedown a few words/phrasesdescribing the attributes of each.

3. Judge the newer additions withreference to what you wrote in itemno. 1.

4. Make a list of all the attributes youconsider as manifestations ofintelligent behaviours. Using theseattributes, try to frame a definition.

5. Discuss your report with yourclassmates and the teacher.

6. Compare it with what theresearchers have to say about‘intelligence’.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Psychologists have proposed severaltheories of intelligence. Theories can bebroadly classified as either representing apsychometric/structural approach or aninformation-processing approach.

The psychometric approach considersintelligence as an aggregate of abilities. Itexpresses the individual’s performance interms of a single index of cognitive abilities.On the other hand, the information-processing approach describes theprocesses people use in intellectualreasoning and problem solving. The majorfocus of this approach is on how anintelligent person acts. Rather thanfocusing on structure of intelligence or itsunderlying dimensions, information-

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processing approaches emphasise studyingcognitive functions underlying intelligentbehaviour. We will discuss somerepresentative theories of theseapproaches.

We mentioned above that Alfred Binetwas the first psychologist who tried toformalise the concept of intelligence interms of mental operations. Prior to him,we find the notion of intelligence describedin general ways in various philosophicaltreatises available in different culturaltraditions. Binet’s theory of intelligencewas rather simple as it arose from hisinterest in differentiating more intelligentfrom less intelligent individuals. He,therefore, conceptualised intelligence asconsisting of one similar set of abilitieswhich can be used for solving any or everyproblem in an individual’s environment.His theory of intelligence is called Uni orone factor theory of intelligence. Thistheory came to be disputed whenpsychologists started analysing dataof individuals, which was collected usingBinet’s test.

In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed atwo-factor theory of intelligenceemploying a statistical method called factoranalysis. He showed that intelligenceconsisted of a general factor (g-factor) andsome specific factors (s-factors). Theg-factor includes mental operations whichare primary and common to allperformances. In addition to the g-factor,he said that there are also many specificabilities. These are contained in what hecalled the s-factor. Excellent singers,architects, scientists, and athletes may behigh on g-factor, but in addition to this,they have specific abilities which allowthem to excel in their respective domains.Spearman’s theory was followed by LouisThurstone’s theory. He proposed thetheory of primary mental abilities. Itstates that intelligence consists of sevenprimary abilities, each of which is relatively

independent of the others. These primaryabilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension(grasping meaning of words, concepts, andideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed andaccuracy in numerical and computationalskills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualisingpatterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed(speed in perceiving details), (v) WordFluency (using words fluently and flexibly),(vi) Memory (accuracy in recallinginformation), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning(deriving general rules from presentedfacts).

Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchicalmodel of intelligence consisting of abilitiesoperating at two levels, called Level I andLevel II. Level I is the associative learningin which output is more or less similar tothe input (e.g., rote learning and memory).Level II, called cognitive competence,involves higher-order skills as theytransform the input to produce an effectiveoutput.

J.P. Guilford proposed the structure-of-intellect model which classifiesintellectual traits among three dimensions:operations, contents, and products.Operations are what the respondent does.These include cognition, memoryrecording, memory retention, divergentproduction, convergent production, andevaluation. Contents refer to the nature ofmaterials or information on whichintellectual operations are performed.These include visual, auditory, symbolic(e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g.,words) and behavioural (e.g., informationabout people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs,etc.). Products refer to the form in whichinformation is processed by the respondent.Products are classified into units, classes,relations, systems, transformations, andimplications. Since this classification(Guilford, 1988) includes 6 5 6 categories,therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cellis expected to have at least one factor orability; some cells may have more than


one factor. Each factor is described interms of all three dimensions.

The above mentioned theories arerepresentations of psychometric approachto understand intelligent behaviour.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner proposed the theory ofmultiple intelligences. According to him,intelligence is not a single entity; ratherdistinct types of intelligences exist. Eachof these intelligences are independent ofeach other. This means that, if a personexhibits one type of intelligence, it does notnecessarily indicate being high or low onother types of intelligences. Gardner alsoput forth that dif ferent types ofintelligences interact and work together tofind a solution to a problem. Gardnerstudied extremely talented persons, whohad shown exceptional abilities in theirrespective areas, and described eight typesof intelligence. These are as follows:

Linguistic (skills involved in theproduction and use of language) : It is thecapacity to use language fluently andflexibly to express one’s thinking andunderstand others. Persons high on thisintelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they aresensitive to different shades of wordmeanings, are articulate, and can createlinguistic images in their mind. Poets andwriters are very strong in this componentof intelligence.

Logical-Mathematical (skills inscientific thinking and problem solving) :Persons high on this type of intelligence canthink logically and critically. They engage inabstract reasoning, and can manipulatesymbols to solve mathematical problems.Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likelyto be strong in this component.

Spatial (skills in forming visual imagesand patterns) : It refers to the abilitiesinvolved in forming, using, andtransforming mental images. The person

high on this intelligence can easilyrepresent the spatial world in the mind.Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters,architects, interior decorators, andsurgeons are likely to have highlydeveloped spatial intelligence.

Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythmsand patterns) : It is the capacity toproduce, create and manipulate musicalpatterns. Persons high on this intelligenceare very sensitive to sounds and vibrations,and in creating new patterns of sounds.

Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole orportions of the body flexibly andcreatively) : This consists of the use of thewhole body or portions of it for display orconstruction of products and problemsolving. Athletes, dancers, actors,sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeonsare likely to have such kind of intelligence.

Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtleaspects of others’ behaviours) : This is theskill of understanding the motives, feelingsand behaviours of other people so as tobond into a comfortable relationship withothers. Psychologists, counsellors,politicians, social workers, and religiousleaders are likely to possess highinterpersonal intelligence.

Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s ownfeelings, motives, and desires): This refersto the knowledge of one’s internalstrengths and limitations and using thatknowledge to effectively relate to others.Persons high on this ability have finersensibilities regarding their identity,human existence, and meaning of life.Philosophers and spiritual leaders presentexamples of this type of intelligence.

Naturalistic (sensitivity to the featuresof the natural world) : This involvescomplete awareness of our relationshipwith the natural world. It is useful inrecognising the beauty of different speciesof flora and fauna, and making subtlediscriminations in the natural world.Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists,

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zoologists, and bird watchers possess moreof naturalistic intelligence.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed thetriarchic theory of intelligence. Sternbergviews intelligence as “the ability to adapt,to shape and select environment toaccomplish one’s goals and those of one’ssociety and culture”. According to thistheory, there are three basic types ofintelligence: Componential, Experiential,and Contextual. The elements of thetriarchic theory of intelligence are shownin Figure 1.1.

Componential Intelligence : Compo-nential or analytical intelligence is theanalysis of information to solve problems.Persons high on this ability thinkanalytically and critically and succeed inschools. This intelligence has threecomponents, each serving a differentfunction. First is the knowledge acquisitioncomponent, which is responsible forlearning and acquisition of the ways ofdoing things. The second is the meta or ahigher order component, which involvesplanning concerning what to do and howto do. The third is the performancecomponent, which involves actually doingthings.

Fig.1.1 : Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Experiential Intelligence: Experiential orcreative intelligence is involved in usingpast experiences creatively to solve novelproblems. It is reflected in creativeperformance. Persons high on this aspectintegrate different experiences in anoriginal way to make new discoveries andinventions. They quickly find out whichinformation is crucial in a given situation.

Activity1.2

On the ‘Practical’ Track

You have just been admitted into aschool/college. You will take threeexaminations during the entire year.You sincerely want to receive highmarks in the course. How likely are youto engage in each of the followingactions? Rank the following courses ofaction. Match your answer with thatof your classmates.• Attend classes regularly.• Create study groups with your

friends for weekly discussions.• Take detailed notes in the class.• Join a tutorial/coaching centre.• Prepare written notes for each

chapter.• Read the textbook chapters

thoroughly.• Solve the questions of the last three

years.Talk to your teacher after the class.


Contextual Intelligence : Contextual orpractical intelligence involves the ability todeal with environmental demandsencountered on a daily basis. It may becalled ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’.Persons high on this aspect easily adapt totheir present environment or select a morefavourable environment than the existingone, or modify the environment to fit theirneeds. Therefore, they turn out to besuccessful in life.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory ofintelligence represents the information-processing approach to understandintelligence.

Planning, Attention-arousal, andSimultaneous-successive (PASS) Modelof Intelligence

This model has been developed by J.P.Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994).According to this model, intellectualactivity involves the interdependentfunctioning of three neurological systems,called the functional units of brain. Theseunits are responsible for arousal/attention,coding or processing, and planningrespectively.

Arousal/Attention : State of arousal isbasic to any behaviour as it helps us inattending to stimuli. Arousal and attentionenable a person to process information. Anoptimal level of arousal focuses ourattention to the relevant aspects of aproblem. Too much or too little arousalwould interfere with attention. Forinstance, when you are told by yourteacher about a test which s/he plans tohold, it would arouse you to attend to thespecific chapters. Arousal forces you tofocus your attention on reading, learningand revising the contents of the chapters.

Simultaneous and SuccessiveProcessing : You can integrate theinformation into your knowledge systemeither simultaneously or successively.Simultaneous processing takes place when

you perceive the relations among variousconcepts and integrate them into ameaningful pattern for comprehension. Forexample, in Raven’s Progressive Matrices(RPM) Test, a design is presented fromwhich a part has been removed. You arerequired to choose one of the six optionsthat best completes the design.Simultaneous processing helps you ingrasping the meaning and relationshipbetween the given abstract figures.Successive processing takes place whenyou remember all the information seriallyso that the recall of one leads to the recallof another. Learning of digits, alphabets,multiplication tables, etc. are examples ofsuccessive processing.

Planning : This is an essential featureof intelligence. After the information isattended to and processed, planning isactivated. It allows us to think of thepossible courses of action, implement themto reach a target, and evaluate theireffectiveness. If a plan does not work, it ismodified to suit the requirements of thetask or situation. For example, to take thetest scheduled by your teacher, you wouldhave to set goals, plan a time schedule ofstudy, get clarifications in case of problemsand if you are not able to tackle thechapters assigned for the test, you mayhave to think of other ways (e.g., give moretime, study with a friend, etc.) to meet yourgoals.

These PASS processes operate on aknowledge base developed either formally(by reading, writing, and experimenting) orinformally from the environment. Theseprocesses are interactive and dynamic innature; yet each has its own distinctivefunctions. Das and Naglieri have alsodeveloped a battery of tests, known as theCognitive Assessment System (CAS). Itconsists of verbal as well as non-verbaltasks that measure basic cognitivefunctions presumed to be independent ofschooling. The battery of tests is meant forindividuals between 5 and 18 years of age.

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The results of assessment can be used toremedy cognitive deficits of children withlearning problems.

This model represents the information-processing approach to intelligence.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE

Why are some people more intelligent thanothers? Is it due to their heredity, or is itdue to the influence of environmentalfactors? You have already read about theinfluence of these factors in thedevelopment of an individual in Class XI.

Intelligence: Interplay of Nature andNurture

The evidence for hereditary influences onintelligence comes mainly from studies ontwins and adopted children. Theintelligence of identical twins rearedtogether correlate almost 0.90. Twinsseparated early in childhood alsoshow considerable similarity in theirintellectual, personality and behaviouralcharacteristics. The intelligence of identicaltwins reared in different environmentscorrelate 0.72, those of fraternal twinsreared together correlate almost 0.60, andthose of brothers and sisters rearedtogether correlate about 0.50, whilesiblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.Another line of evidence comes from thestudies of adopted children, whichshow that children’s intelligence is moresimilar to their biological rather thanadoptive parents.

With respect to the role of environment,studies have reported that as children growin age, their intelligence level tends to movecloser to that of their adoptive parents.Children from disadvantaged homesadopted into families with higher socio-economic status exhibit a large increase intheir intelligence scores. There is evidencethat environmental deprivation lowers

intelligence while rich nutrition, good familybackground, and quality schoolingincreases intelligence. There is a generalconsensus among psychologists thatintelligence is a product of complexinteraction of heredity (nature) andenvironment (nurture). Heredity can best beviewed as something that sets a rangewithin which an individual’s development isactually shaped by the support andopportunities of the environment.

Assessment of Intelligence

In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon,made the first successful attempt toformally measure intelligence. In 1908,when the scale was revised, they gave theconcept of Mental Age (MA), which is ameasure of a person’s intellectualdevelopment relative to people of her/hisage group. A mental age of 5 means thata child’s performance on an intelligencetest equals the average performance levelof a group of 5-year olds. ChronologicalAge (CA) is the biological age from birth.A bright child’s MA is more than her/hisCA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA.Retardation was defined by Binet andSimon as being two mental age years belowthe chronological age.

In 1912, William Stern, a Germanpsychologist, devised the concept ofIntelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers tomental age divided by chronological age,and multiplied by 100.

IQ = 100

The number 100 is used as a multiplierto avoid the decimal point. When the MAequals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA ismore than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQbecomes less than 100 when the MA is lessthan the CA. For example, a10-year-old child with a mental age of 12would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 100),

MACA


whereas the same child with an MA of 7would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 100). Theaverage IQ in the population is 100,irrespective of age.

IQ scores are distributed in thepopulation in such a way that the scoresof most people tend to fall in the middlerange of the distribution. Only a fewpeople have either very high or very lowscores. The frequency distribution for theIQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve.This type of distribution is symmetricalaround the central value, called the mean.The distribution of IQ scores in the formof a normal distribution is shown inFigure 1.2.

The mean IQ score in a population is100. People with IQ scores in the range of90–110 have normal intelligence. Thosewith IQ below 70 are suspected to have

‘mental retardation’, while persons with IQabove 130 are considered to haveexceptional talents. The IQ score of aperson can be interpreted by referring toTable 1.1.

Table 1.1 : Classification of People on theBasis of IQ

IQ Range Descriptive Label Per cent in thePopulation

Above 130 Very superior 2.2120 – 130 Superior 6.7110 – 119 High average 16.190 – 109 Average 50.080 – 89 Low average 16.170 – 79 Borderline 6.7Below 70 Mentally challenged/ 2.2

retarded

Fig.1.2 : Normal Curve Pattern Showing Distribution of IQ Scores in the Population

‘Intelligent’ Numbers(Computing IQ)

• Find out the IQ of a 14-year-oldchild with a mental age of 16.

• Find out the mental age of a 12-year-old child with an IQ of 90.

Activity1.3

All persons do not have the sameintellectual capacity; some areexceptionally bright and some are belowaverage. One practical use of intelligencetest is to identify persons at the extremesof intellectual functioning. If you refer toTable 1.1, you will notice that about 2 percent of the population have IQ above 130,

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and a similar percentage have IQ below 70.The persons in the first group are calledintellectually gifted; those in the secondgroup are termed mentally challengedor mentally retarded. These twogroups deviate considerably from thenormal population in respect of theircognitive, emotional, and motivationalcharacteristics.

Variations of Intelligence

Intellectual Deficiency

On the one hand are the gifted and creativepersons we discussed briefly earlier. On theother hand, there are children who faceenormous difficulty in learning even verysimple skills. Those children who showintellectual deficiency are termed as‘mentally challenged’ or ‘mentally retarded’.As a group, there is wide variation amongthe mentally deficient or retarded. TheAmerican Association on Mental Deficiency(AAMD) views mental retardation as“significantly sub-average generalintellectual functioning existing concurrentlywith deficits in adaptive behaviour andmanifested during the developmentalperiod”. This definition points to threebasic features. First, in order to be judgedas mentally retarded, a person must showsignificantly sub-average intellectualfunctioning. Persons having IQs below 70are judged to have sub-averageintelligence. The second relates to deficitsin adaptive behaviour. Adaptive behaviourrefers to a person’s capacity to beindependent and deal effectively with one’senvironment. The third feature is that thedeficits must be observed during thedevelopmental period, that is between 0and 18 years of age.

Individuals who are categorised ashaving mental retardation show significantvariation in their abilities, ranging fromthose who can be taught to work and

function with special attention, to thosewho cannot be trained and requireinstitutional care throughout their lives.You have learnt earlier that the mean IQscore in the population is 100. Thesefigures are used to understand thecategories of mentally retarded. Thedifferent levels of retardation are: mildretardation (IQs 55–69), moderateretardation (IQs 40–54), severeretardation (IQs 25–39), and profoundretardation (IQs below 25). Although thedevelopment of people with mildretardation is typically slower than that oftheir peers, they can function quiteindependently, hold jobs and families. Asthe level of retardation increases, thedifficulties are strongly marked. The peoplewith moderate retardation lag behind theirpeers in language and motor skills. Theycan be trained in self-care skills, andsimple social and communication skills.They need to have moderate degree ofsupervision in everyday tasks. Individualswith profound and severe retardation areincapable of managing life and needconstant care for their entire lives. You willread more about the characteristics of thementally retarded/challenged in Chapter 4.

Intellectual Giftedness

Intellectually gifted individuals show higherperformance because of their outstandingpotentialities. The study of giftedindividuals began in 1925, when LewisTerman followed the lives of about 1500children with IQs of 130 and above toexamine how intelligence was related tooccupational success and life adjustment.Although the terms ‘talent ’ and‘giftedness ’ are often used inter -changeably, they mean different things.Giftedness is exceptional general abilityshown in superior performance in a widevariety of areas. Talent is a narrower termand refers to remarkable ability in a


specific field (e.g., spiritual, social,aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented aresometimes called ‘prodigies’.

It has been suggested by psychologiststhat giftedness from the teachers’ point ofview depends on a combination of highability, high creativity , and highcommitment.

Gifted children show early signs ofintellectual superiority. Even duringinfancy and early childhood, they showlarger attention span, good recognitionmemory, preference for novelty, sensitivityto environmental changes, and earlyappearance of language skills. To equategiftedness with brilliant academicperformance is not correct. Athletes whoshow superior psychomotor ability arealso gifted. Each gifted studentpossesses different strengths, personalitiesand characteristics. Some importantcharacteristics of gifted children are :• Advanced logical thinking, questioning

and problem solving behaviour.• High speed in processing information.• Superior generalisation and discri-

mination ability.• Advanced level of original and creative

thinking.• High level of intrinsic motivation and

self-esteem.• Independent and non-conformist

thinking.• Preference for solitary academic

activities for long periods.Performance on intelligence tests is not

the only measure for identifying the gifted.Many other sources of information, such asteachers’ judgment, school achievementrecord, parents’ interviews, peer and self-ratings, etc. can be used in combinationwith intellectual assessment. To reach theirfull potential, gifted children require specialattention and different educationalprogrammes beyond those provided tonormal children in regular classrooms.

These may include life enrichmentprogrammes that can sharpen children’sskills in productive thinking, planning,decision-making, and communication.

Types of Intelligence Tests

Intelligence tests are of several types. Onthe basis of their administration procedure,they can be categorised as individual orgroup tests. They can also be classified aseither verbal or performance tests on thebasis of the nature of items used.Depending upon the extent to which anintelligence test favours one culture overanother, it can be judged as either culture-fair or culture-biased. You can choose atest depending on the purpose of your use.

Individual or Group Tests

An individual intelligence test is one whichcan be administered to one person at atime. A group intelligence test can beadministered to several personssimultaneously. Individual tests requirethe test administrator to establish arapport with the subject and be sensitiveto her/his feelings, moods and expressionsduring the testing session. Group tests,however, do not allow an opportunity to befamiliar with the subjects’ feelings.Individual tests allow people to answerorally or in a written form or manipulateobjects as per the tester’s instructions.Group tests generally seek written answersusually in a multiple-choice format.

Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests

An intelligence test may be fully verbal,fully non-verbal or fully performance-based, or it may consist of a mixture ofitems from each category. Verbal testsrequire subjects to give verbal responseseither orally or in a written form. Therefore,verbal tests can be administered only toliterate people. The non-verbal tests use

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pictures or illustrations as test items.Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test isan example of a non-verbal test. In thistest, the subject examines an incompletepattern and chooses a figure from thealternatives that will complete the pattern.A specimen item from RPM is given inFigure 1.3.

is asked to arrange the blocks within atime period to produce a given design. Amajor advantage of performance tests isthat they can be easily administered topersons from different cultures.

Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests

Intelligence tests can be culture-fair orculture-biased. Many intelligence testsshow a bias to the culture in which theyare developed. Tests developed in Americaand Europe represent an urban andmiddle class cultural ethos. Hence,educated middle class white subjectsgenerally perform well on those tests. Theitems do not respect the culturalperspectives of Asia and Africa. The normsfor these tests are also drawn from westerncultural groups. You may be alreadyfamiliar with the concept of normsdiscussed in Class XI.

It is nearly impossible to design a testthat can be applied equally meaningfully inall cultures. Psychologists have tried todevelop tests that are culture-fair orculturally appropriate, i.e. one that does notdiscriminate against individuals belongingto different cultures. In such tests, itemsare constructed in a manner that they

Box1.1

Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests

You might have learnt by now that intelligence tests serve many useful purposes such asselection, counselling, guidance, self-analysis, and diagnosis. Unless used by a trainedinvestigator, they may be misused either intentionally or unintentionally. Some of the ill-effects of intelligence testing by naive testers are:• Poor performance on a test may attach a stigma to children and thereby adversely

affect their performance and self-respect.• The tests may invite discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders in the

society.• Administering a test biased in favour of the middle class and higher class populations

may underestimate the IQ of children coming from disadvantaged sections of the society.• Intelligence tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical side of intelligence,

and they also do not relate much to success in life. Intelligence can be a potential factorfor achievement in various spheres of life.It is suggested that one should guard against erroneous practices associated with

intelligence tests and take the help of trained psychologists to analyse an individual’sstrengths and weaknesses.

Fig.1.3 : An Item from Raven’s ProgressiveMatrices Test

Performance tests require subjects tomanipulate objects and other materials toperform a task. Written language is notnecessary for answering the items. Forexample, Kohs’ Block Design Test containsa number of wooden blocks. The subject


assess experiences common to all culturesor have questions in which language usageis not required. Non-verbal andperformance tests help reduce the culturalbias usually associated with verbal tests.

Intelligence Testing in India

S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt inconstructing an intelligence test in Hindi

(NCERT) has documented Indian tests.Critical reviews of Indian tests arepublished in the form of handbooks.NLEPT has brought out the handbooks inthe area of intelligence, aptitude,personality, attitudes, and interests.Table 1.2 lists some tests developed inIndia. Among these, Bhatia’s Battery ofPerformance Tests is quite popular.

Table 1.2 : Some Tests Developed in India

Verbal

• CIE Verbal Group Test of Intelligence byUday Shankar

• Group Test of General Mental Ability byS. Jalota

• Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta

• The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M. Mohsin

• Group Test of Intelligence by Bureau ofPsychology, Allahabad

• Indian Adaptation of Stanford-Binet Test(Third Edition) by S.K. Kulshrestha

• Test of General Mental Ability (Hindi) byM.C. Joshi.

Performance

• CIE Non-verbal Group Test of Intelligence

• Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests

• Draw-a-Man Test by Pramila Pathak

• Adaptation of Wechsler Adult PerformanceIntelligence Scale by R. Ramalingaswamy

in the 1930s. C.H. Rice attempted tostandardise Binet’s test in Urdu andPunjabi. At about the same time,Mahalanobis attempted to standardiseBinet’s test in Bengali. Attempts were alsomade by Indian researchers to developIndian norms for some western testsincluding RPM, WAIS, Alexander’sPassalong, Cube Construction, and Kohs’Block Design. Long and Mehta prepared aMental Measurement Handbook listing out103 tests of intelligence in India that wereavailable in various languages. Since then,a number of tests have either beendeveloped or adapted from westerncultures. The National Library ofEducational and Psychological Tests(NLEPT) at the National Council ofEducational Research and Training

CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

A major characteristic of intelligence is thatit helps individuals to adapt to theirenvironment. The cultural environmentprovides a context for intelligence todevelop. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,has argued that culture provides a socialcontext in which people live, grow, andunderstand the world around them. Forexample, in less technologically developedsocieties, social and emotional skills inrelating to people are valued, while intechnologically advanced societies,personal achievement founded on abilitiesof reasoning and judgment is consideredto represent intelligence.

From your previous reading you knowthat culture is a collective system

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of customs, beliefs, attitudes, andachievements in art and literature. Aperson’s intelligence is likely to be tunedby these cultural parameters. Manytheorists have regarded intelligence asattributes specific to the person withoutregard to their cultural background. Theunique features of culture now find somerepresentation in theories of intelligence.Sternberg’s notion of contextual orpractical intelligence implies thatintelligence is a product of culture.Vygotsky also believed that cultures, likeindividuals, have a life of their own; theygrow and change, and in the processspecify what will be the end-product ofsuccessful intellectual development.According to him, while elementary mentalfunctions (e.g., crying, attending tomother’s voice, sensitivity to smells,walking, and running) are universal, themanner in which higher mental functionssuch as problem solving and thinkingoperate are largely culture-produced.

Technologically advanced societiesadopt child rearing practices that fosterskills of generalisation and abstraction,speed, minimal moves, and mentalmanipulation among children. Thesesocieties promote a type of behaviour,which can be called technologicalintelligence. In these societies, personsare well-versed in skills of attention,observation, analysis, performance, speed,and achievement orientation. Intelligencetests developed in western cultures lookprecisely for these skills in an individual.

Technological intelligence is not sovalued in many Asian and Africansocieties. The qualities and skills regardedas intelligent actions in non-westerncultures are sharply different, though theboundaries are gradually vanishing underthe influence of western cultures. Inaddition to cognitive competence that isvery specific to the individual, the non-western cultures look for skills to relate to

others in the society. Some non-westernsocieties value self-reflection andcollectivistic orientation as opposed topersonal achievement and individualisticorientation.

Intelligence in the Indian Tradition

Contrary to technological intelligence,intelligence in the Indian tradition can betermed as integral intelligence, whichgives emphasis on connectivity with thesocial and world environment. Indianthinkers view intelligence from a holisticperspective where equal attention is paidto cognitive and non-cognitive processes aswell as their integration.

The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’ which isoften used to represent intelligence is farmore pervasive in scope than the westernconcept of intelligence. Buddhi, accordingto J.P. Das, includes such skills as mentaleffort, determined action, feelings, andopinions along with cognitive competencesuch as knowledge, discrimination, andunderstanding. Among other things,buddhi is the knowledge of one’s own selfbased on conscience, will and desire. Thus,the notion of buddhi has affective andmotivational components besides a strongcognitive component. Unlike the westernviews, which primarily focus on cognitiveparameters, the following competencies areidentified as facets of intelligence in theIndian tradition :• Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to

context, understanding, discrimination,problem solving, and ef fectivecommunication).

• Social competence (respect for socialorder, commitment to elders, theyoung and the needy, concernabout others, recognising others’perspectives).

• Emotional competence (self-regulation and self-monitoring ofemotions, honesty, politeness, goodconduct, and self-evaluation).


• Entrepreneurial competence(commitment, persistence, patience,hard work, vigilance, and goal-directedbehaviours).

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

The notion of emotional intelligencebroadens the concept of intelligencebeyond the intellectual sphere/domain andconsiders that intelligence includesemotions. You may note that it builds onthe concept of intelligence in the Indiantradition. Emotional intelligence is a setof skills that underlie accurate appraisal,expression, and regulation of emotions. Itis the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQand scholastic record is not enough to besuccessful in life. You may find manypeople who are academically talented, butare unsuccessful in their own life. Theyexperience problems in family, workplaceand interpersonal relationships. What dothey lack? Some psychologists believe thatthe source of their difficulty may be a lackof emotional intelligence. This concept wasfirst introduced by Salovey and Mayer whoconsidered emotional intelligence as “theability to monitor one’s own and other’semotions, to discriminate among them, andto use the information to guide one’sthinking and actions”. Emotional Quotient(EQ) is used to express emotionalintelligence in the same way as IQ is usedto express intelligence.

In simple terms, emotional intelligencerefers to the ability to process emotional

information accurately and efficiently. Toknow the characteristics of persons whoare high on emotional intelligence, readBox 1.2.

Emotional intelligence is receivingincreasing attention of educators fordealing with students who are affected bystresses and challenges of the outsideworld. Programmes aimed at improvingstudents’ emotional intelligence havebeneficial ef fects on their academicachievement. They encourage cooperativebehaviour and reduce their antisocialactivities. These programmes are veryuseful in preparing students to face thechallenges of life outside the classroom.

SPECIAL ABILITIES

Aptitude : Nature and Measurement

By now you have learnt enough aboutintelligence. You may recall thatintelligence tests assess a general mentalability. Aptitude refers to special abilitiesin a particular field of activity. It is acombination of characteristics that indicatesan individual’s capacity to acquire somespecific knowledge or skill after training. Weassess aptitude with the help of selectedtests. The knowledge of aptitude can helpus to predict an individual’s futureperformance.

While assessing intelligence,psychologists often found that people withsimilar intelligence differed widely inacquiring certain knowledge or skills. You

Box1.2

Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons

• Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.• Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body

language, voice and tone, and facial expressions.• Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while solving

problems and taking decisions.• Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions.• Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and

others to achieve harmony and peace.

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may observe in your class that there arecertain areas in which some intelligentstudents do not do well. When you have aproblem in mathematics, you may turn toAman for help, and with similar difficultiesin literature you may consult Avinash. Youmay request Shabnam to sing for yourannual function, and may turn to Johnwhen facing a problem with your bike.These specific skills and abilities are calledaptitudes. With proper training theseabilities can be considerably enhanced.

In order to be successful in a particularfield, a person must have both aptitudeand interest. Interest is a preference fora particular activity; aptitude is thepotentiality to perform that activity. Aperson may be interested in a particularjob or activity, but may not have theaptitude for it. Similarly, a person mayhave the potentiality for performing a job,but may not be interested in doing that.In both cases, the outcome will not besatisfactory. A student with highmechanical aptitude and strong interest inengineering is more likely to be asuccessful mechanical engineer.

Aptitude tests are available in twoforms: independent (specialised) aptitudetests and multiple (generalised) aptitudetests. Clerical Aptitude, MechanicalAptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and TypingAptitude are independent aptitude tests.Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the formof test batteries, which measure aptitudein several separate but homogeneousareas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT),the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB),and the Armed Services VocationalAptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-knownaptitude test batteries. Among these,DAT is most commonly used ineducational settings. It consists of 8independent subtests: (i) Verbal Reasoning,(ii) Numerical Reasoning, (iii) AbstractReasoning, (iv) Clerical Speed andAccuracy, (v) Mechanical Reasoning,

(vi) Space Relations, (vii) Spelling, and(viii) Language Usage. J.M. Ojha hasdeveloped an Indian adaptation of DAT.Several other aptitude tests have beendeveloped in India for measuring scientific,scholastic, literary, clerical, and teachingaptitudes.

CREATIVITY

In the foregoing sections, you have readthat there are variations in psychologicalattributes like intelligence, aptitude,personality and so on. Here, you will learnthat there are differences in the potentialfor creativity across individuals and themanner in which creativity is expressed.Some are highly creative and others are notso creative. Some may express creativity inwriting, still others in dance, music, poetry,science and so on. Manifestations ofcreativity can be observed in a novelsolution to a problem, an invention,composition of a poem, painting, newchemical process, an innovation in law, abreakthrough in preventing a disease andthe like. Despite differences, one commonelement among these is the production ofsomething new and unique.

We generally think of creativity in termsof creative persons like Tagore, Einstein,C.V. Raman, Ramanujan etc. who havemade outstanding contributions indifferent spheres. In recent years, ourunderstanding of creativity has broadened.Creativity is not just limited to a selectedfew — the artist, the scientist, the poet orthe inventor. An ordinary individual who isengaged in simple occupations like pottery,carpentry, cooking, etc. can also becreative. However, it has been said thatthey are not working at the same level ofcreativity as an eminent scientist or awriter. Hence, we can say that individualsvary in terms of the level and the areas inwhich they exhibit creativity and that allmay not be operating at the same level.


Einstein’s theory of relativity is an exampleof the highest level of creativity whichimplies bringing out altogether new ideas,facts, theory, or a product. Another levelof creativity is working on what has alreadybeen established earlier by way ofmodifications, by putting things in newperspectives or to new use.

Research literature suggests thatchildren begin to develop their imaginationduring the early years of childhood butthey express creativity mostly throughphysical activities and in non-verbal ways.When language and intellectual functionsare fully developed and store of knowledgeis adequately available, creativity isexpressed through verbal modes too. Thosewho are outstanding in their creativity maygive an indication about the direction inwhich their creativity lies through theirself-chosen activities. In some cases,however, opportunities need to be providedbefore they can manifest their hiddenpotential for creativity.

How do we explain variations in thepotential for creativity? As in the case ofother mental and physical characteristics,such variations can be attributed to thecomplex interaction of heredity andenvironment. There is no disagreementthat creativity is determined by bothheredity and environment. Limits of thecreative potential are set by heredity,environmental factors stimulate thedevelopment of creativity. How much of thecreative potential can be realised, whenand in what specific form and direction islargely determined by environmentalfactors such as motivation, commitment,family support, peer influences, trainingopportunities, etc. Although no amount oftraining can transform an average personto the level of Tagore, Shakespeare, etc.but it is also true that every individual canraise her/his level of creative potentialbeyond its present level. In this context,

you have already read in Class XI aboutstrategies to enhance creativity.

Creativity and Intelligence

One important debate in understandingthe variations in creativity has been therelationship of creativity with intelligence.

Let us take an example of two studentsin a class. Sunita is regarded by herteachers as an excellent student. She doesher work on time, scores the highestgrades in her class, listens to instructionswith care, grasps quickly, reproducesaccurately but she rarely comes out withideas which are her own. Rita is anotherstudent who is just average in her studiesand has not achieved high gradesconsistently. She prefers to learn on herown. She improvises new ways of helpingher mother at home and comes up withnew ways of doing her work andassignments. The former is considered tobe more intelligent and the latter as morecreative. Thus, a person who has theability to learn faster and reproduceaccurately may be considered intelligentmore than creative unless s/he devisesnew ways of learning and doing.

Terman, in the 1920s, found thatpersons with high IQ were not necessarilycreative. At the same time, creative ideascould come from persons who did not havea very high IQ. Other researches haveshown that not even one of those identifiedas gifted, followed up throughout theiradult life, had become well-known forcreativity in some field. Researchers havealso found that both high and low level ofcreativity can be found in highly intelligentchildren and also children of averageintelligence. The same person, thus, can becreative as well as intelligent but it is notnecessary that intelligent ones, in theconventional sense, must be creative.Intelligence, therefore, by itself does notensure creativity.

Psychology20

Key TermsAptitude, Aptitude tests, Case study, Cognitive assessment system, Componential intelligence, Contextualintelligence, Creativity, Emotional intelligence, Culture-fair test, Experiential intelligence, g-factor,Individual differences, Intellectual giftedness, Intelligence, Intelligence tests, Intelligence quotient (IQ),Interest, Interview, Mental age (MA), Mental retardation, Observational method, Planning, Psychologicaltest, Simultaneous processing, Situationism, Successive processing, Values.

Researchers have found that therelationship between creativity andintelligence is positive. All creative actsrequire some minimum ability to acquireknowledge and capacity to comprehend,retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, forexample, need facility in dealing withlanguage. The artist must understand theeffect that will be produced by a particulartechnique of painting, a scientist must beable to reason and so on. Hence, a certainlevel of intelligence is required for creativitybut beyond that intelligence does notcorrelate well with creativity. It can beconcluded that creativity can take manyforms and blends. Some may have more ofintellectual attributes, others may havemore of attributes associated withcreativity. But, what are the attributes ofa creative person? You may like to discussthe attributes which are common to allkinds of creative persons.

Creativity tests came into existence toassess variations in terms of the potentialfor creativity in contrast to intelligence.

A general feature of most of thecreativity tests is that they are open-ended.They permit the person to think of differentanswers to the questions or problems interms of her/his experiences, whateverthese may have been. These help theindividual to go in different directions.There are no specified answers toquestions or problems in creativity tests.Therefore, there is freedom to use one’simagination and express it in original ways.Creativity tests involve divergent thinkingand assess such abilities as ability toproduce a variety of ideas, i.e. ideas which

are off-the-beaten track, ability to see newrelationships between seemingly unrelatedthings, ability to guess causes andconsequences, ability to put things in anew context, etc. This is contrary to thetests of intelligence which mostly involveconvergent thinking. In tests ofintelligence, the person has to think of theright solution to the problem and the focusis on assessing abilities such as memory,logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptualability, and clear thinking. There is littlescope for the expression of spontaneity,originality, and imagination.

Since expressions of creativity arevaried, tests have been developed usingdifferent stimuli like words, figures, action,and sounds. These tests measure generalcreative thinking abilities like ability tothink of a variety of ideas on a given topic/situation, alternative ways of looking atthings, problems or situations, to guesscauses and consequences, to think ofunusual ideas to improve and to usecommon objects, ask unusual questionsand so on. A few investigators have alsodeveloped tests of creativity in differentareas such as literary creativity, scientificcreativity, mathematical creativity, etc.Some of the famous psychologists whohave developed creativity tests areGuilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach andKogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi.Each test has a standardised procedure, acomplete set of manual, and interpretationguide. These can be used only afterextensive training in administration andinterpretation of test scores.


• Individuals vary in their physical and psychological characteristics. Individualdifferences refer to distinctiveness and variations in people’s characteristics andbehaviour patterns.

• A wide variety of personal attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, interests,personality, and values can be assessed. Psychologists assess these attributesthrough psychological tests, interviews, case studies, observations, and self-reports.

• The term ‘intelligence’ refers to an individual’s capacity to understand the world,think rationally, and use resources effectively to meet the demands of life. Intellectualdevelopment is the product of a complex interplay of hereditary factors (nature), andenvironmental conditions (nurture).

• The psychometric approaches to intelligence lay emphasis on studying intelligenceas a constellation of abilities, expressed in quantitative terms such as IQ. The morerecent theories representing information-processing approaches, e.g. Sternberg’striarchic theory and Das’s PASS model describe the processes underlying intelligentbehaviour. Howard Gardner suggests that there are eight different kinds of intelligence.

• Intelligence is assessed with the help of specially designed tests. Intelligence testsmay be of verbal or performance type; can be administered individually or in groups;and may be culturally-biased or culturally-fair. At the two extremes of intelligenceare the intellectually deficient persons and the intellectually gifted.

• Culture provides a context for intellectual development. Western culture promotes‘technological intelligence’ based on skills of analysis, performance, speed, andachievement orientation. In contrast, non-western cultures value self-reflection, socialand emotional competence as signs of intelligent behaviour. Indian culture promotes‘integral intelligence’ that emphasises connectivity with people and the larger socialworld.

• Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive and manage one’s and other’sfeelings and emotions; to motivate oneself and restrain one’s impulses; and to handleinterpersonal relationships effectively.

• Aptitude refers to an individual’s potential for acquiring some specific skills. Aptitudetests predict what an individual will be able to do given proper training andenvironment.

• Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel,appropriate and useful. Certain level of intelligence is necessary to be creative, but ahigh level of intelligence, however, does not ensure that a person would certainly becreative.

Review Questions1. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?2. To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment

(nurture)? Discuss.3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.4. How does the triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?5. “Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological

systems”. Explain with reference to PASS model.6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?8. How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?9. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in

their intellectual ability? Explain.10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life

and why?11. How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude measured?12. How is creativity related to intelligence?

Psychology22

Pedagogical Hints1. To introduce the topic, teacher can

initiate discussion on psychologicalconstructs such as intelligence,personality, aptitude, values, etc.This would serve to point out thedifficulty in arriving at one single,universal explanation of theseconstructs.

2. Teacher should draw from theexperiences of the students tointroduce the different psycho-logical attributes discussed in thechapter.

3. Some sample items of various tests(to be collected by the teacher) canbe given to students to generatetheir interest.

4. Encourage students to complete theactivities and also to designactivities on their own eitherindividually or in groups. Initiatediscussion in the class onobservations made by students oncompletion of the activities.

5. Students should be encouraged torelate the concepts to their real-lifeexperiences.

Weblinkshttp://www.indiana.edu/~intell/anastasi.shtmlhttp://www.chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/intell.htmlhttp://www.humandimensions.org/emotion.htmhttp://www.emotionaliq.com/Gdefault.htmhttp://edweb.gsn.org/edref.mi.intro.htmlhttp://www.talentsmart.comhttp://www.kent.ac.uk/career/psychotests.com

ProjectIdeas

1. Observe and interview 5 persons in your neighbourhood in order to see how they differfrom each other in terms of certain psychological attributes. Cover all the five domains.Prepare a psychological profile of each person and compare.

2. Select 5 vocations and gather information about the nature of work done by people inthese vocations. Also analyse these vocations in terms of the types of psychologicalattributes required for successful performance. Write a report.

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