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Unit 4 GeneticsUnit 4 Genetics
Ch. 12 DNA & RNACh. 12 DNA & RNA
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Griffith & Transformation
Griffith & Transformation
Griffith injected mice with 4 different samples of bacteria
When injected separately, neither heat-killed (disease-causing bacteria), nor live, (harmless bacteria) killed the
mice
Griffith injected mice with 4 different samples of bacteria
When injected separately, neither heat-killed (disease-causing bacteria), nor live, (harmless bacteria) killed the
mice
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Griffith & Transformation
Griffith & Transformation
The 2 types injected together, however, caused fatal pneumonia
From this experiment, biologists concluded (inferred) that genetic info. could be transferred from 1 bacterium to another
The 2 types injected together, however, caused fatal pneumonia
From this experiment, biologists concluded (inferred) that genetic info. could be transferred from 1 bacterium to another
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Griffith’s ExperimentGriffith’s Experiment
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Griffith & Transformation
Griffith & Transformation
Transformation - when 1 strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another strain of bacteria
Transformation - when 1 strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another strain of bacteria
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Avery & DNAAvery & DNA
Avery & other scientists performed experiments to determine if transformation required just 1 particular molecule (of a gene)
Discovered that the nucleic acid, DNA, stores & transmits genetic info. from 1 generation of an organism to the next
Avery & other scientists performed experiments to determine if transformation required just 1 particular molecule (of a gene)
Discovered that the nucleic acid, DNA, stores & transmits genetic info. from 1 generation of an organism to the next
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The Hershey-Chase Experiment
The Hershey-Chase Experiment
Studied viruses, nonliving particles smaller than a cell, that can infect living organisms
Bacteriophage - virus that infects bacteria
Studied viruses, nonliving particles smaller than a cell, that can infect living organisms
Bacteriophage - virus that infects bacteria
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The Hershey-Chase Experiment
The Hershey-Chase Experiment
They performed experiments with a bacteriophage to determine its genetic material
They concluded that the genetic material of the bacteriophage was DNA & not protein
They performed experiments with a bacteriophage to determine its genetic material
They concluded that the genetic material of the bacteriophage was DNA & not protein
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The Hershey-Chase Experiment
The Hershey-Chase Experiment
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The Components & Structure of DNAThe Components & Structure of DNA
Genes were known to do 3 specific things: Carry info. from 1 generation to the next
Put that info. to work by determining heritable characteristics of organisms
Be easily copied, since all of a cell’s genetic info. is replicated every time a cell divides
Genes were known to do 3 specific things: Carry info. from 1 generation to the next
Put that info. to work by determining heritable characteristics of organisms
Be easily copied, since all of a cell’s genetic info. is replicated every time a cell divides
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The Components & Structure of DNAThe Components & Structure of DNA
DNA is a long molecule made up of units called nucleotides
Nucleotides - made up of 3 parts: A sugar A phosphate group A nitrogenous base
DNA is a long molecule made up of units called nucleotides
Nucleotides - made up of 3 parts: A sugar A phosphate group A nitrogenous base
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The Components & Structure of DNAThe Components & Structure of DNA
Watson & Crick developed the model of DNA, a double helix, where 2 strands were wound around each other
Watson & Crick developed the model of DNA, a double helix, where 2 strands were wound around each other
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The Components & Structure of DNAThe Components & Structure of DNA
The 2 strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds
Those bonds only link adenine (A) & thymine (T), & guanine (G) & cytosine (C)
Base-pairing rule - A - T, G - C
The 2 strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds
Those bonds only link adenine (A) & thymine (T), & guanine (G) & cytosine (C)
Base-pairing rule - A - T, G - C
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Structure of DNAStructure of DNA
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DNA & ChromosomesDNA & Chromosomes
Most prokaryotes have a single circular DNA molecule in their cytoplasm
Most prokaryotes have a single circular DNA molecule in their cytoplasm
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DNA & ChromosomesDNA & Chromosomes
Eukaryotic DNA is located in the nucleus, in the form of a # of chromosomes
The chromosome # varies from 1 species to another
Eukaryotic DNA is located in the nucleus, in the form of a # of chromosomes
The chromosome # varies from 1 species to another
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DNA & ChromosomesDNA & Chromosomes
Eukaryotic chromosomes have both DNA & protein, packed tightly together to form chromatin
Chromatin - DNA that is tightly coiled around proteins (histones)
Eukaryotic chromosomes have both DNA & protein, packed tightly together to form chromatin
Chromatin - DNA that is tightly coiled around proteins (histones)
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DNA & ChromosomesDNA & Chromosomes
From largest to smallest, genetic information is arranged the following way: Chromosomes Genes (found on chromosomes) DNA (makes up genes)
From largest to smallest, genetic information is arranged the following way: Chromosomes Genes (found on chromosomes) DNA (makes up genes)
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DNA ReplicationDNA Replication
Each strand of DNA could be used to make the other strand, they compliment each other
Replication - when a cell’s DNA is copied
Each strand of DNA could be used to make the other strand, they compliment each other
Replication - when a cell’s DNA is copied
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DNA ReplicationDNA Replication
During DNA replication, the DNA molecule separates into 2 strands, then produces 2 new complimentary strands following base pairing rules
Each strand of the double helix serves as a template, or model, for the new strand
During DNA replication, the DNA molecule separates into 2 strands, then produces 2 new complimentary strands following base pairing rules
Each strand of the double helix serves as a template, or model, for the new strand
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DNA ReplicationDNA Replication
DNA polymerase - enzyme that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule
It also proofreads each new DNA strand, to help prevent errors in copying the DNA
DNA polymerase - enzyme that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule
It also proofreads each new DNA strand, to help prevent errors in copying the DNA
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DNA ReplicationDNA Replication
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RNA & Protein Synthesis
RNA & Protein Synthesis
Genes - coded DNA instruc. that control the production of proteins within the cell
The 1st step in decoding the genetic messages is to copy part of the nucleotide sequence from DNA into RNA
Genes - coded DNA instruc. that control the production of proteins within the cell
The 1st step in decoding the genetic messages is to copy part of the nucleotide sequence from DNA into RNA
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The Structure of RNAThe Structure of RNA
There are 3 main differences between RNA & DNA: The sugar is a ribose, instead of deoxyribose
RNA is single-stranded RNA contains the nitrogenous base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
There are 3 main differences between RNA & DNA: The sugar is a ribose, instead of deoxyribose
RNA is single-stranded RNA contains the nitrogenous base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
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Types of RNATypes of RNA
There are 3 main types of RNA: Messenger RNA Ribosomal RNA Transfer RNA
There are 3 main types of RNA: Messenger RNA Ribosomal RNA Transfer RNA
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Types of RNATypes of RNA
Messenger RNA - (mRNA) - RNA molecules that carry copies of instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins They serve as “messengers” from DNA to the rest of the cell
Messenger RNA - (mRNA) - RNA molecules that carry copies of instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins They serve as “messengers” from DNA to the rest of the cell
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Types of RNATypes of RNA
Ribosomal RNA - (rRNA) - form of RNA that combines with proteins to make a ribosome
Ribosomal RNA - (rRNA) - form of RNA that combines with proteins to make a ribosome
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Types of RNATypes of RNA
Transfer RNA - (tRNA) - RNA molecule that transfers each amino acid to the ribosome as it is specified by coded messages in mRNA
Transfer RNA - (tRNA) - RNA molecule that transfers each amino acid to the ribosome as it is specified by coded messages in mRNA
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Types of RNATypes of RNA
Transcription - process of producing RNA molecules by copying part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA into a complimentary sequence of RNA
RNA polymerase - enzyme that works similarly to DNA polymerase
Transcription - process of producing RNA molecules by copying part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA into a complimentary sequence of RNA
RNA polymerase - enzyme that works similarly to DNA polymerase
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Types of RNATypes of RNA
During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA & separates the DNA strands
RNA polymerase then uses 1 strand of DNA as a template to assemble nucleotides into a strand of RNA
During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA & separates the DNA strands
RNA polymerase then uses 1 strand of DNA as a template to assemble nucleotides into a strand of RNA
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TranscriptionTranscription
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The Genetic CodeThe Genetic Code
Proteins are made by joining amino acids into long chains - polypeptides
Each polypeptide has a combination of any 20 different amino acids
Proteins are made by joining amino acids into long chains - polypeptides
Each polypeptide has a combination of any 20 different amino acids
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The Genetic CodeThe Genetic Code
Codon - 3 consecutive nucleotides that specify a single amino acid to be added to the polypeptide
Codon - 3 consecutive nucleotides that specify a single amino acid to be added to the polypeptide
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The Genetic CodeThe Genetic Code
For ex.: UCGCACGGU Read 3 at a time:
UCG-CAC-GGU Which represents amino acids:
Serine-Histidine-Glycine
For ex.: UCGCACGGU Read 3 at a time:
UCG-CAC-GGU Which represents amino acids:
Serine-Histidine-Glycine
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The Genetic CodeThe Genetic Code
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TranslationTranslation
Translation - (protein synthesis) -decoding an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain (protein)
It takes place on ribosomes Before translation occurs, mRNA is transcribed (re-written) from DNA in the nucleus & released in the cytoplasm
Translation - (protein synthesis) -decoding an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain (protein)
It takes place on ribosomes Before translation occurs, mRNA is transcribed (re-written) from DNA in the nucleus & released in the cytoplasm
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TranslationTranslation
Translation then begins when an mRNA molecule in the cytoplasm attaches to a ribosome
As each codon of mRNA moves through the ribosome, the proper amino acid is brought into the ribosome by tRNA
Translation then begins when an mRNA molecule in the cytoplasm attaches to a ribosome
As each codon of mRNA moves through the ribosome, the proper amino acid is brought into the ribosome by tRNA
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TranslationTranslation
Each tRNA molecule has an anticodon - 3 nitrogenous bases that are complimentary to 1 mRNA codon
The ribosome attaches 1 amino acid to another, forming the polypeptide chain, until it reaches the “stop” codon
Each tRNA molecule has an anticodon - 3 nitrogenous bases that are complimentary to 1 mRNA codon
The ribosome attaches 1 amino acid to another, forming the polypeptide chain, until it reaches the “stop” codon
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TranslationTranslation
After the amino acid is attached, the tRNA molecule that brought it into the ribosome, is released back into the cytoplasm
The result is a protein
After the amino acid is attached, the tRNA molecule that brought it into the ribosome, is released back into the cytoplasm
The result is a protein
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TranslationTranslation
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TranslationTranslation
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Summary: Role of RNA & DNA
Summary: Role of RNA & DNA
Start with a single strand of DNA
That DNA is transcribed into RNA The RNA is separated into codons The codons code for amino acids, which form a polypeptide chain
Start with a single strand of DNA
That DNA is transcribed into RNA The RNA is separated into codons The codons code for amino acids, which form a polypeptide chain
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Genes & ProteinsGenes & Proteins
Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze & regulate chemical reactions
Genes for proteins can regulate the rate & pattern of growth throughout an organism
Proteins are microscopic tools that are designed to build or operate a living cell
Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze & regulate chemical reactions
Genes for proteins can regulate the rate & pattern of growth throughout an organism
Proteins are microscopic tools that are designed to build or operate a living cell
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MutationsMutations
Mutations - a mistake in the DNA base sequence, may occur during copying the DNA
Changes in the genetic material
Mutations - a mistake in the DNA base sequence, may occur during copying the DNA
Changes in the genetic material
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Kinds of MutationsKinds of Mutations
Gene mutations are changes in a single gene
Chromosomal mutations are changes in the whole chromosome
Gene mutations are changes in a single gene
Chromosomal mutations are changes in the whole chromosome
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Gene MutationsGene Mutations
Point mutations - change in 1 or a few nucleotides, they occur at a single point in the DNA sequence
Frameshift mutations - adding or deleting a nucleotide, shifts the “reading frame” of the genetic message
Point mutations - change in 1 or a few nucleotides, they occur at a single point in the DNA sequence
Frameshift mutations - adding or deleting a nucleotide, shifts the “reading frame” of the genetic message
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Chromosomal MutationsChromosomal Mutations
There are 4 types of chromosomal mutations: deletions, duplications, inversions, & translocations
Deletions involve the loss of all or part of a chromosome
Duplications produce extra copies of parts of a chromosome
There are 4 types of chromosomal mutations: deletions, duplications, inversions, & translocations
Deletions involve the loss of all or part of a chromosome
Duplications produce extra copies of parts of a chromosome
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Chromosomal MutationsChromosomal Mutations
Inversions reverse the direction of parts of chromosomes
Translocations occur when part of one chromosome
breaks off & attaches to another
Inversions reverse the direction of parts of chromosomes
Translocations occur when part of one chromosome
breaks off & attaches to another
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Significance of Mutations
Significance of Mutations
Mutations cause changes in protein structure or gene activity
They are the cause of many genetic disorders
Some are associated with many types of cancer
Mutations cause changes in protein structure or gene activity
They are the cause of many genetic disorders
Some are associated with many types of cancer
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Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
Genes that code for liver enzymes are not expressed in nerve cells
Cell specialization requires genetic specialization, but all cells in a multicellular organism carry the complete genetic code in their nucleus
Genes that code for liver enzymes are not expressed in nerve cells
Cell specialization requires genetic specialization, but all cells in a multicellular organism carry the complete genetic code in their nucleus