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Understanding CellsA. History of the Microscope microscopes :
an object
Make objects larger than they are
Allow us to see objects that can’t be seen with our eyes
1845
anything that will magnify
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the inventor of the first microscope is debatable
– Zaccharias and Hans Janssen (Holland) produced a crude microscope
used a 2 lens system
– Galileo (Italy) built a crude compound
microscope
– Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (Holland) built a simple single lens microscope first person to see unicellular
movement
1595
1609
1600’s
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– Hooke (England) built a compound microscope 3 lens system
– Hillier and Prebus (U of T Canada) built first electron microscope
– first scanning electron microscope
1665
1930’s
1940’s
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B. Types of Microscopes
Are early microscopes
Consist of a lens
1. Simple Microscopes
2. Compound Microscopes
are = still focused when objectives are switched
single
parfocal
There are 2 types of compound microscopesa. Research
b. Dissecting
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1. research microscope Has
has a rotating nosepiece with Uses transmitted light (passes through specimen Creates an image
Are used to look at
specimens
magnifies up to
one ocular
3 objective lenses
400 X
inverted
transparent
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2. dissecting microscope has
has Has 2 light sources top
& bottom
two eyepieces ( binocular)
1 rotating objective
Creates a image
virtual
Uses incident light (light reflected off the specimen
Are used to look at
Magnify specimens up to 30 X
solid objects
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Parts of a Microscope
Part Function
Ocular (eyepiece) is the lens you look throughmagnifies the object 10 X
Objective Lenses Magnify the object;
Revolving Nosepiece Contains 2 – 4 objectivesRotates enabling different lenses to be used
Course Focusing Knob Is used to focus the object on LOW POWERIt moves the stage up and down
Fine focusing Knob makes the image clearer
Iris diaphragm regulates the amount of light reaching the slide
Stage Platform to hold slide
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Image Magnification
• Is the magnification you are using when viewing a specimen
• It is created by both the objective & ocular
Formula:Image Magnification = ocular x objective low: 10 X =
medium: 10 X =high: 10 X =
40 X100 X400 X
4 X10 X40 X
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Example 1:A student is viewing a specimen on low power. What is the image magnification?
Ocular = 10Objective = 4
Image Magnification = Ocular x Objective
Image Magnification = 10 x 4 = 40
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Example 2:A student is viewing a specimen on high power. What is the image magnification?Ocular = 10Objective = 40
Image Magnification = Ocular x ObjectiveImage Magnification = 10 x 40 = 400
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Image
• It is what you see• Is created using light
(transmitted or incident)• There are two types:
• Virtual• Inverted
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A. Virtual
The the same Produced by a Created using incident light;
reflects off the specimen
image is as it really is
dissecting microscope
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B. Inverted
The image is upside down & backwards
Produced by a research microscope Created using transmitted light;
passes through the specimen
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Field of View the of the specimen that you
see
Conversion:
field of view
measured in
amount
microns µ (1 106 m)
1mm = 1000 µm It is less withhigher magnifications
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the field of view as magnification
low power 4 X 4000 µm
medium power 10 X 1500 µm
high power 40 X 400 µm
decreasesincreases
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Drawing Size
1. draw the specimen
2. measure the widest part in mm
3. convert mm to microns (1000 m = 1 mm)
45mm = 45000
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Estimation of Actual Size
• Estimate how many specimens fit across the field
actual size = field diameter
fit number
actual size
= 4000 µ 4 = 1000 µ
• Divide the field of view by that number
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Scale used to compare diagram size with actual
size of the specimen measure drawing diameter with a ruler
then convert to microns
scale = actual size drawing size
eg) 1 : 50 000 1 : 0.1
on diagram real life on diagram real life
really big things
really small things
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D. Electron Microscopes too large, complex and expensive for a
school to use uses a instead of a light wave
focus by adjusting electromagnets
no images since color requires light
able to see great detail
images are called
termite head
beam of electrons
color
micrographs
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Ebola virus
Transmission Electron Microscopes beam of electrons
stained tissue imbedded in plastic
Advantages: and the internal detail of the cell can be seen
Disadvantages: and the specimen must be
passes through
very high magnification (100,000 to 1,500,000 X), high resolution
2-D, black and whitedead
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human eyelashes
Scanning Electron Microscopes scans the of the specimen
image is produced by the electrons being onto a screen which can be manipulated for a 3-D view often coats the specimen with gold for a sharper image
surface
reflected off the surface
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Advantages: black and white image of the surface of a specimen
Disadvantages: specimen must be although recently there has been a form that uses living material
high magnification (300,000 X),3D
dead
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E. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM)
in the 1980’s the use of a laser beam and computers made it easier to view specimens
image is of a very thin section with high resolution which is stored in the computer and can be combined to produce a 3D image that can be manipulated in every direction
living, transparent
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F. Imaging and Staining Techniques - essential to see details
most cells are colourless when light passes directly through them in brightfield microscopy
can be used that attach to different parts of the cell, and therefore the image
unfortunately, stains kill the cells
eg) iodine, methylene blue
contrast
stainsimproving the contrast
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– ability to distinguish between that are very close together, in other words, of the image
for a standard light microscope
light microscopes have limited resolution because when light is focused into smaller diameters, the image becomes blurred
resolutiontwo structures
clarity
0.2 µm
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– a technique used to localize substances in cells
fluorescent substances are attached to molecules in cells
they then in the presence of ultraviolet light
Cell during mitosis
fluorescence microscopy
glow
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G. Cell Research at the Molecular Level due to advances in technology, we are able
to see great detail at the molecular level of cells now have other microscopes that can see in even more detail than the SEM and TEM:
atomic force microscope (AFM)
scanning tunneling microscope (STM)
silicon atoms magnified 1 000 000 000 X
surface of a plastic ID card
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Gene Mapping DNA found on the chromosomes within the
nucleus of the cell directs the activities of the cell the produced a so that all gene locations are known…this may allow scientists to manage such as
can also use to manipulate plant genes to produce plants that are (many ethical issues involved)
genetic map of humansHuman Genome Project
disease-causing abnormalitiescancer
pest and drought resistant
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Cell Communication cells are (
both move into and out of the cell) from one cell travels through the and attaches to specific receptors on other cells (like a lock and key)
the then change shape and allows functions to occur
open systems matter and energy
messenger moleculesbloodstream
receptors
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H. Development of Cell Theory
• is the idea spontaneously from
Spontaneous generation
non-living matter
that life can emerge
• It was an idea that continued to thrive from 1500s to the mid 1800s
• It was disproved by:1. Francesco Redi2. Louis Pasteur
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1. Francesco Redi - 1668• Questioned the idea that maggots could
appear spontaneously from raw meat• Had 3 jars that contained raw meat:
• 1 open to the air• 1 completely sealed• 1 covered with gauze (contains tiny
holes)• Result = Only the one did
have flies
closed not
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Needlham’s Experiment
Belief: boiling destroyed microorganisms Needham’s Experiment: put boiled chicken
broth into a sealed flask In theory, no microorganisms should exist But …microorganisms still appeared?!? Spontaneous generation remained popular…
they ignored contact with air
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Spallanzani’s Work
Spallanzani’s belief: microbes in the air inside the flask got into the broth
The test: remove the air from the flask and then seal in the boiled chicken broth
Result: nothing grew in the chicken broth!
Why is Spontaneous generation is still popular?!?
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2. Louis Pasteur - 1864
Conducted experiment using broth and flasks
He boiled the broth & put it in an s-shaped flask
After some time he removed the s-shaped flask
Result = Swan neck let in & there was
growth but removal of neck produced mould
S shaped
no air no mould
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S-shaped neck a llows air butstops microorganism anddust
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Variables in Experiments
Represent conditions that occur in an experimentThere are 3: Controlled variable Manipulated variable Responding variable
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1. Controlled Variable Are the in an
experiment that for each trial
E.g. the temperature in the room
conditions remain the same
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2.Manipulated Variable
Are the in the
experiment E.g. amount of light
condition(s) that are changed
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3. Responding Variable
• Is (what happens)
• E.g. the plant with no light dies
the response
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the cell was discovered by while he was examining under his microscope
the (which disproves spontaneous generation) proposed by in says that: 1. all living things are
2. all life functions takes place in cells, making them the
3. all cells come from
NOTE: do not fit this category, they are not considered living or non-living
Robert Hookecork
Cell Theory Schleiden and Schwann1839
made of cells
smallest unit of life pre-existing cells
viruses
The Cell Theory
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I. The Cell cells carry on all life processes including:
7. reproduction
6. waste removal
5. exchange of gases
4. response to stimuli
3. growth
2. movement
1. intake of nutrients
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Nucleus control centre of the cell surrounded by nuclear envelope
(semipermeable double membrane)
the nuclear envelope is perforated by pores which allow the entry and exit of certain large macromolecules and particles
contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which is found in chromosomes and carries genetic information
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nucleolus is a small part that stores ribosomal RNA
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Cell Membrane protective barrier for the cell
semipermeable (allows needed materials into the cell and waste materials out)
not rigid; very fluid
type of protein molecule varies with the membrane
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Cytoplasm gel-like substance (mostly water)
includes everything between the nuclear membrane and the cell membrane
contains nutrients needed for cellular activities
has specialized organelles with specific functions
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network of fibres extending throughout the cytoplasm
used for support, motility and regulation
contain microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments
Cytoskeleton
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provide the cell with energy (ATP) Mitochondria
called the “Power house” of the cell
sugar is burned and O2 is used up
number of mitochondria in a cell is directly related to its level of metabolic activity
ex. muscle cells have lots of mitochondria
contain some DNA and can divide
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site where protein is produced (protein synthesis)
Ribosomes
take amino acids and make proteins
free ribosomes are suspended in cytosol
bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear membrane
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flat disc-shaped sacs (cisternae)
Golgi Apparatus (Bodies)
store substances from the endoplasmic reticulum, such as proteins which will be secreted for use outside the cell
produces carbohydrates
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carries out intracellular digestion
Lysosomes
contains strong digestive enzymes that break down macromolecules
eg) food
fuse with vesicles made by phagocytosis
nickname “the suicide sac”
eg) white blood cells have lots of these
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extensive network of membranes accounting for more than half of the total membrane in the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum
transport system of tubes which connect all parts of the cell
responsible for transporting proteins which are the building blocks of the cell
rough ER
ribosomes attached to it protein synthesis (secretory proteins) membrane factory for the cell
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smooth ER
no ribosomes attached associated with fat, oil, steroid
production
eg) sex hormones contain enzymes that detoxify drugs
stores calcium ions which are used for muscle motion
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storage place for food, water, or wastes
Vacuoles and Vesicles
surrounded by a membrane
vesicles transport substances through the cell
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found in plant cells and some algae contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis
Chloroplasts
chlorophyll produces a green colour
contain a small amount of DNA and can divide
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found only in plant cells and some protists and fungi
Cell Wall
rigid wall for protection and support and prevent excessive uptake of water
primary cell wall is developed first with the secondary (more rigid) cell wall developing later
made of cellulose
**Note: the cell still has a cell membrane
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Cell Part City Structure
Cell membrane Nucleus Mitochondria Lysosomes Ribosomes Golgi Bodies Vacuoles Endoplasmic Reticulum Chloroplasts DNA Chromosomes
City Limits City Hall Power Plant Garbage Trucks, Recycling Butcher, Bakery, Carpenter, Butcher shopSafeway, IGA, Brick, MallsStreets, Rivers Green houseOriginal Blueprints of city Library
The Cell as a City
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The Chemical Composition of Cell Structures is the major compound found in all
cells cell structures are made up of
organized into 4 major organic compounds
1. lipids -
2. carbohydrates -
3. protein -
4. nucleic acids -
, such as are found in tiny amounts in the solvent
water
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
fats and oils
sugars, starches and cellulose
muscle fibre
DNA, genetic material
trace elements zinc, magnesium, and iron
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Isolating Cell Organelles isolating specific cell organelles allows
researchers to study their
is a process that uses to the organelles
a centrifuge is used to test tubes containing at various speeds
the resulting force separates the cell components by
composition and functions
cell fractionationcentrifugation separate
spindisrupted cells
size and density
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Types of Cells
prokaryotes –
eg) bacteria
bacteria
all cells contain a
have a
,
they have a usually very cells
cell (plasma) membrane, cytoplasm (cytosol), chromosomes and ribosomes
do not nucleus or nuclear membranenucleoid region
small
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eukaryotes –
eg)
have a and a
generally than prokaryotic cells
nucleusnuclear membrane
larger
plants, animals, fungi, protists
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Comparing Plant and Animal Cells
Plants cell membrane &
cytoskeleton made up of
DNA- made of
for cell division
made of cellulose
have which contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis
central vacuoles some plants store
energy in the form of
Animals
for cell division
cell wall chlorophyll
vacuoles and vesicles
may contain in the form of fats
proteins & lipids
sugars, nitrogen bases & phosphate
no centrioles
cell wallchloroplasts
large
starch or oils
SAME
SAME
centrioles
NO
NO
small glycogen or lipids
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Animal Cell smooth ER
lysosomes
golgiapparatus
cell membrane
cytoplasm
mitochondrion
centrioles
ribosome
rough ER
nucleus
nuclear envelope
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Animal Cell
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Plant Cellcell walls
cell membranevacuole
cytoplasm
chloroplasts
mitochondrion
golgi apparatus
smooth ER
ribosome
rough ER
nucleusnuclear envelope
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Plant Cell
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J. The Cell Membrane all cells have
the cell membrane is which means it allows the passage of
passage depends on of molecule
scientists have developed the to describe the cell membrane
it is made up of:
1. phospholipid bilayer – a where the and are the and
cell membranes
selectively permeable certain molecules
size and charge
double layerphosphate ends face out
attracted to water, lipids (fats) face inrepel water
Fluid Mosaic Model
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Phospholipid Bilayer
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2. protein channels – found throughout the bilayer and may be
inside attached to the outside (peripheral), or pass all the way through (integral)
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Fluid Mosaic Model of the Cell Membrane
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both the phospholipids and the proteins can within the membrane
is found packed in the bilayer
migrate and move laterally
cholesterol between phospholipids
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the types of lipids in the bilayer determine the of the cell eg)
fats make the membrane more
fats make the membrane more
temperature resistance
unsaturated (kinked)
fluid
saturated (straight)
viscous
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different types of cells contain a
the plasma proteins have six basic functions:
different set of proteins
1. transport
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2. enzyme activity
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3. signal transduction
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4. cell-cell recognition
5. intercellular joining
6. stability and maintenance of cell shape
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K. The Particle Model of Matter this model is used to understand the types of
transport in cells:
1. All matter is made of however they can be of
2. The particles of matter are
Adding or removing affects the movement of the particles.
They move the least in and the most in
particlesvarying size and composition.
constantly moving and vibrating. solids
gases.energy
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3. The particles of matter are to one another or are bonded together.
4. Particles have between them that are smallest in and greatest in (exception – ice). The spaces may be occupied by particles of another substance.
attracted
spacessolids gases
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L. Cell Transport there are two methods by which molecules
move into and out of cells:
1. – does require the addition of energy
a) Simple Diffusion
b) Osmosis
2. –requires
c) Facilitated Diffusion
Passive Transport NOT
Active Transport energy
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a) Simple Diffusion a is a
molecules naturally move the gradient from concentration to concentration until the concentration is in all areas…called
the flow of in and out of the cell is regulated by the (recall fluid mosaic model) it is caused by the of particles and is passive because is required for it to occur
1. Passive Transport
concentration gradient difference in concentration between two points “down”
high lowequal
simple diffusion
nutrients/wastescell membrane
collisionno extra energy
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membranes always allow all kinds of molecules in and out
they can be selective depending on what the cell needs:
1. membranes – allow the passage of molecules
2. membranes – allow the passage of molecules
3. membranes – allow any molecules through
do not
permeableall
semipermeablesome
impermeable do not
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all molecules but necessarily at the
diffusion rate is affected by:
1. of molecules – molecules diffuse2. – high temperature
provides more so diffusion occurs
3. – higher concentration means so diffusion occurs
4. through which it travels – solids diffusion more than liquids or gases
diffuse notsame rate
size small faster
temperatureenergy faster
concentrationmore collisions faster
mediumrestrict
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b) Osmosis is the diffusion of
across a membrane
it relies solely on the
three situations can arise depending on the tonicity of the cell’s environment:
1. Hypotonic
concentration of water is greater on the
net movement of water is the cell
osmosis watersemipermeable
concentration gradient
intooutside
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2. Hypertonic
concentration of water is greater on the
net movement of water is of the cell
3. Isotonic
concentration of water is inside and outside the cell
water moves into and out of the cell at the
outinside
same rate
equal
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in animal cells the process of losing water and is called
is the of animal cells
is the of water balance
plants rely on osmosis to regulate the water pressure exerted on the inside of their cell walls…called
without turgor pressure plants
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DQuM4BnSRS8
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZsAFEI8IcVU
shrinking
cytolysis swelling and bursting
osmoregulation control
turgor pressure
wilt
crenation
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occurs when the cell membrane of a plant cell from the cell wall due to being placed in a environment
before after
plasmolysisshrinks away
hypertonic
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is the opposite of plasmolysis…it is the rehydration of a plant cell due to being placed in a environment
deplasmolysis
hypotonic
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c) Facilitated Diffusion only matter that is
can pass the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion water soluble particles use the to move across the membrane by
molecules and pass through the pores created by the
molecules are across the membrane by the
molecules are moving the concentration gradient, therefore no extra energy needs to be expended by the cell
soluble in lipidsthrough
protein channelsdiffusion
small ionschannel proteins
big helpedtransport (carrier) proteins
down
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protein channel
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Active Transport is the movement of
molecules the concentration gradient
it requires two things:
1. transport proteins
2. ENERGY…adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
small particles are transferred using a
in the membrane carries the particle to the
active transportagainst
“protein pump”
carrier proteinother side
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one example is the used to keep the concentration of and in the cell
all cells have which is a separation of across their plasma membranes…called the
the cell is charged compared to the cell
ions move with the which takes into consideration the gradient and gradient
sodium-potassium pumpK+ high
Na+ low
voltages,opposite charges,
membrane potential
inside negativelyoutside
electrochemical gradient,concentration
charge
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cells use to bring particles cell membrane
and then pinches off to form a around it
the cell can then use the contents where needed cells use to large particles transports via transport vesicles budded off the
the vesicle and the and releases its contents into the both endocytosis and exocytosis in the form of
endocytosis in
engulfs a molecule (nutrient, bacteria etc)transport vesicle
exocytosis remove
wastes and cell products (proteins, hormones)
Golgi apparatus
joins with restores cell membrane ECF
require energyATP
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M. Application of Cellular Transport 1. Membrane Technologies industrial use of
to the action of membranes
useful in the study of
study of that bind with specific molecules to bring them into the cell by
syntheticsmimic
receptor proteins
endocytosis
HIV and cancer
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focus on of receptor proteins to prevent the virus from getting in
development of drugs that the immune system to cancer cells
develop that target the of cancer
recognition
drugs unique proteins
stimulatedetect and destroy
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2. Synthetic Membrane Technology are
surrounded by a identical to the membrane in human cells used to to infected tissues in a
inside holds while the bilayer holds
liposomes fluid-filled sacsphospholipid bilayer
deliver drugscontrolled delivery system
water-soluble medicinefat-soluble medicine
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Advantages:
1. liposomes stay in the blood for than medication on its own
2. delivers treatment to no harm to other cells
3. used in to into cancer cells to kill them
longer time
target cells only,
gene therapy inject DNA
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liposome releasing a drug
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3. Dialysis rids the body of
two types available to people with kidney failure both based on the principles of
a. Hemodialysis must be performed in a
hospital blood is from
the body, cleansed and returned to the body
toxins, wastes and excess fluid
diffusion and osmosis
removed
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b. Peritoneal dialysis soft catheter inserted into the
sterile dialysate fluid (mixture of water, glucose, sodium, chloride, etc.) is pumped into the cavity
toxins move down the into the fluid which is then removed from the body
abdominal cavity
concentration gradient
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N. Surface Area to Volume Ratio the of membrane (
) around a cell in relation to the of the cell ( ) determines how many molecules (nutrients and wastes) will of the cell
cells divide to maintain a (lots of membrane to low volume)
as a cell grows the SA/V ratio until the cell is no longer efficient…growth then the cell
amount surface areasize volume
pass in and out
high surface area to volume ratio
larger dropsslows
divides
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organisms can have to help increase overall SA/V ratio
eg) in lungs – increase SA for O2(g) and CO2(g) diffusion
in small intestines – increase SA for absorption of nutrients
specialized structures
alveoli
villi and microvilli
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Example 1
For the following “cell”, calculate the surface area, the volume and the surface area to volume ratio:
10 mm
4 mm
2 mm SA = ( × w × 2) + ( × w × 2) + ( × w × 2)
= (4 mm × 2 mm × 2) + (4 mm × 10 mm × 2) + (2 mm × 10 mm × 2)
= 16 mm2 + 80 mm2 + 40 mm2
= 136 mm2
SA/V = 136/80 = 1.7
V = × w × h = 4 mm × 2 mm × 10 mm = 80 mm3
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Example 2
For the following “cell”, calculate the surface area, the volume and the surface area to volume ratio:
SA = ( × w × 2) + ( × w × 2) + ( × w × 2)
= (4 mm × 7 mm × 2) + (4 mm × 10 mm × 2) + (7 mm × 10 mm × 2)
= 56 mm2 + 80 mm2 + 140 mm2
= 276 mm2
SA/V = 276/280 = 0.99
V = × w × h = 4 mm × 7 mm × 10 mm = 280 mm3
10 mm
7 mm
4 mm
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O. Single-Celled vs. Multicellular single celled organisms can live
they are quite many
individually or in colonies
small, microscopic
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this need resulted in the development of of cells, tissues and systems in animals and plants
once a single-celled organism or colony of single-celled organisms reaches a certain size, it requires a multicellular level of organization
specialization
performs necessary to maintain life of the organism entire cell all functions
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performing the same function
eg) red blood cells, dermal tissue
tissues – groups of cells
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contributing to the same function
eg) heart
organ – group of tissues
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contributing to the same function
eg) circulatory system, root system
system – group of organs
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this in larger organisms allows in life processes and therefore
“division of labour”greater efficiency
increases survival
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O. Plant Structure, Growth and Development
Shoot system
Root system
A. Plants Organs, Tissues and Cells• plants contain a _________ system (__________) and
a ___________ system (_______________________)• almost all vascular plants rely on both systems to
live• roots receive ______________ and other
_______________________ from __________________________________
• shoot system depends on ____________ and ______________________ absorbed from ___________by roots
shoot above groundroot underground
water minerals the ground
sugar gases the leaves
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1. Roots – plant - nutrients and water
2. Leaves – sunlight and gases for photosynthesis
3. Stem – plant- water and
nutrients4. Flower/cones -
Plant Organs
anchor
absorb
collect
support
transports
reproduction
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Plant Tissues
1. Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
outer layer of cells that covers all herbaceous (non-woody) plants
responsible for the exchange of matter and gases into and out of the plant
in woody plants the epidermis of the stem is replaced by cork and bark
protects the plant from disease
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2. Ground Tissue
found as a layer beneath the epidermis
provides strength and support (in stem) involved in food and water storage (roots)
location photosynthesis occurs (leaves)
air spaces between cells allow gases to diffuse
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3. Vascular Tissue
responsible for transport of materials
contain phloem and xylem tissues that transport water, dissolved minerals and sugars a) Xylem – moves water and dissolved
minerals from the roots up the stem
b) Phloem – transports sucrose and other dissolved sugars from the leaves to other parts
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P. Photosynthesis plants contain chloroplasts that contain
chlorophyll (green pigment)
found in the ground tissues of leaves and sometimes in stems
light energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy and stored in the bonds of the glucose molecules cannot take place in the dark
water + carbon dioxide glucose + oxygen
6 H2O + 6 CO2 C6H12O6 + 6 O2
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Q. Cellular Respiration provides the energy of the cell’s life
processes bonds are broken and new compounds formed releasing energy
takes place in the mitochondria takes place all the time in both plants and
animals, but at a much slower rate in plants
glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 H2O + 6 CO2
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R. Leaf Tissues and Gas Exchange guard cells form tiny pores called stomata
that allow gas exchange to happen easily carbon dioxide and oxygen can enter and
leave by diffusion
most stomata are found in the lower epidermis guard cells swell up to open the stomata
potassium ions move in by active transport, and water follows by osmosis
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S. Transpiration process of water vapour leaving the leaf
through the stomata controlled by the guard cells
number and appearance of stomata depends on the environmental conditions
eg) hot, dry conditions very few stomata
humid conditions many stomata
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Palisade Tissue found just below the upper epidermis
long, rigid, rectangular, tightly packed cells responsible for photosynthesis contain many chloroplasts require carbon dioxide and produce oxygen
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Spongy Mesophyll Tissue irregularly shaped, less rigid cells
between the palisade tissue cells and lower epidermis
move oxygen toward stomata for expulsion
move carbon dioxide from the air towards the palisade cells
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Cross Section of Leaf Tissue
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Cross Section of Leaf Tissue
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T. Transport in Plants 4 processes aid in the transport of materials
in plants
1. Cohesion the attraction of water molecules to other
water molecules due to water having a slight positive end
and a slight negative end causes water molecules to hold together
contributing to high surface tension
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2. Adhesion the attraction of water molecules to
molecules of other substances
3. Root Pressure dissolved minerals are present in the cells
of the root as a result of active transport, thus producing a higher solute concentration inside the cell
through osmosis, water is drawn into the cells creating positive pressure that forces fluid up the xylem
water is forced from a higher pressure in the roots, toward the lower pressure in the leaves
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the evaporation of water through the stomata in transpiration creates a tension or transpiration pull
as each water molecule evaporates, it creates a pull on the adjacent water molecules pulling them up the xylem vessels to the leaves most water is lost through the stomata (evaporation)
the transpiration pull is maintained to continue drawing water up the stem
4. Transpiration
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if the temperature is high the rate of evaporation through the stomata will be high and movement through the xylem will be rapid rest of the water is used to produce sugars (photosynthesis)
Tonicity as water enters the plant cells by osmosis,
the cell is said to be turgid
turgidity allows the plant to hold itself up so that it can get sunlight for photosynthesis
it is better for cells to be in a hypotonic environment
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U. Control Systems a stimulus is a change in the environment
that causes a reaction in an organism
both plants and animals respond to stimuli
“tropism” refers to the movement of a plant in response to a stimuli
eg) loud noise, bright light
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Phototropism plant growth in response to light
the plant tip detects the stimuli and sends a chemical to the area of elongation
auxin is a hormone that promotes cell growth or elongation of cells facing away from the light, causing the leaf or stem to bend toward the light positive phototropism is growth towards the light source
negative phototropism is growth away from the light source
eg) stem, flowers
eg) roots
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Gravitropism (Geotropism) plant grown in response to gravity
plants depend on heavy starch particles in specialized cells as indicators of gravity
starch grains shift and settle due to gravity
positive gravitropism is growth towards gravitational pull
eg) roots
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negative gravitropism is growth away from gravitational pull
eg) stem
Other Control Mechanisms temperature, chemicals and water
tendrils respond to touch eg) peas
flowering is often a response to the length of darkness that the plant is exposed to
eg) Christmas cactus, poinsettias