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DOI: 10.1177/107769909106800304
1991 68: 345Journalism & Mass Communication QuarterlyLynette S. Unger, Diane M. Mcconocha and John A. Faier
The Use of Nostalgia in Television Advertising: A Content Analysis
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The Use of Nostalgia in Television Advertising: A Content Analysis
By Lynette S. Unger, Diane M. McConocha, and John A. Faier
Nostalgia was used by means of theme, copy, or music about 10% of the time according to a content analysis of more than a thousand commercials sampled from ABC, CBS, and NBC. Nostalgic references were to family activi- ties or to the "olden days," among other themes, and were most likely to be used with food and beverage com- mercials. The study suggests nostalgia may be especially important in a changing world because it connects us with our past.
>Advertising agencies continually face the challenge of finding new creative tactics that break through the 'clutter" in order to attract and persuade audiences. In recent years, the utilization of nostalgic ele- ments in television ads appears to be such an attempt.' This paper dis- cusses the sociological relevance of nostalgia, as well as its potential usefulness as a means of achieving advertising objectives, and provides a content analysis of the frequency and types of nostalgic elements employed for various products in television advertisements. The discus- sion section proposes some possible explanations for the use of nostal- gia by advertisers of particular product categories.
Nostalgia was selected as the creative tactic of interest because of its relevance to a large demographic segment of the media audience. Baby Boomers have long been the target of marketing and media organiza- tions because of their sheer numbers. As this group approaches middle age ( a transition period during which one looks back), they appear par- ticularly susceptible to nostalgia. Evidence of the relevance of nostalgia pertaining to the 19% and 1960s (the childhood, teen, or college years of Baby Boomers) can be seen in products (e.g., Timex watches and Keds sneakers), movies (e.g., T h e Big Chill" and 'Back to the Future"), television programs (e.g., T h e Wonder Years" and reruns of 'Donna Reed", and "Bewitched?, and comeback tours of rock groups such as the Rolling Stones. Interestingly, not only are those who experi- enced the original versions attracted to these themes/appeals, but also are the younger generations. High school sock-hops, for example, fea- ture music from those decades. The impact of nostalgic tactics may therefore be broader than its obvious appeal to a particular group.
>Professor Unger is Associate Professor and Professor McConocha is Associate Professor in the Marketing Department of Miami University and Mr. Faier works with Omni Tech Consulting Group, Inc., in Chicago.
Vol. 68, No. 3 (Fall 1991) 345 by guest on November 24, 2014jmq.sagepub.comDownloaded from
346 JOURNALISM QUARTEFU,Y Social Psychological Relevance of Nostalgia
Coined from the Greek words for "home" and 'pain," nostalgia is an emotional yearning for or fond remembrance of a better time and place.2 Nostalgia thus involves reflections on past events or experiences. Private nostalgia, individually experienced, is the reflection on previous personal episodes. Like a scrapbook, the mind holds a collection of frag- ments of past personal life. These sentimental fragments of positively distorted memory are called up by the individual who seeks continuity in his or her life. Examples of private nostalgia include reflecting on the great days of high school or remembering the fond hug of a grandpar- ent. It has been shown that individuals tend to be more nostalgic during the transitional stages of the life cycle such as a new job, marriage, new baby, and retirement.
However, not all nostalgic emotions relate to personal or private experience. Feelings of joy, pleasure, and security can be elicited by images that relate to historic events or times that are socially or collec- tively held to be of value. For example, some Southerners may feel nos- talgic about the Confederate flag or the 'Gone with the Wind" planta- tion lifestyle, although they did not personally experience the Civil War or the AnteBellum South. This form of nostalgia is referred to a s public nostalgia.
It is through public nostalgia that society can make the attempt to escape the social worries of the day. It is the positive reflection on the past that provides society with continuity in a changing world. Today's society may be more prone to nostalgic feelings in reaction to current social change (radical changes in the family, major shifts in demograph- ics, and other lifestyle changes). Furthermore, the more rapidly social change occurs, the more nostalgic society can b e c ~ r n e . ~
The interaction between private and public nostalgia is important, particularly in advertising appeals. Many of the symbols and images that convey mainstream public nostalgia are part of private nostalgia. Baby Boomers, for example, may look back to the 1950s when they were growing up and feel very nostalgic about their childhood or teen years. Similarly, these feelings of private nostalgia about the 1950s translate well on a social level. Society can also look back on 'happy days" and feel nostalgic about the music, the clothes, or the food from that period. By being nostalgic, both the society and the individual can maintain continuity in a threatening environment.
Nostalgia as a Tactic: Achieving Communication Objectives Models of communication objectives generally assume that expo-
sure, attention, comprehension, receptiveness, and retention are the desired goals of persuasive messages.' Nostalgic elements may poten- tially work to help achieve these goals for television advertisements.
Advertisers try to overcome selective attention by appealing to needs or by arousing curiosity. The need to escape the pressures of the p r c
1. Bill h s . li Logic in Ads Doesn't Sell, Try a Tug on the Hen- 7 h WOU SInd /and, April a 1982, p. 27; Ronald Alsop. 'Ad Agencies Jazz Up Jineles by Raying on 1960s Nostllgio' WOU Yrrrtjounol. April 8,1985, p 31, Jpv Cocks, Wanna Buy a Revolution? Time, May 18.1967, p. 78, a d Joa~me Upmm, %ding Nostalgia Wave, Old Ads Get a Shot at L k i i Aired Again.' WaU Slnd /and, August 25,1989, p. B3.
2. Fred Dan's. Ylaning F a Yalrrday, A SOcMlw ofNmlo4?ia @Jew York: ?he Free Press, l979). 3. hid. George Jones, T h e Great Nostalgia Kick.' U.S. Ncms & WoddRlpat , March 22,1962. pp. 5760. 4. Wayne M. DeLozier, 7ke M d f i n # Cmnvricolhs Rocm @ew Yo& Mccrrw-HiU. 19'77). and Junes F. Engd
and Roger D. Blackwell. Cmrumn&hooiorlU Editim (Chicago: Dryden Press, El&?). by guest on November 24, 2014jmq.sagepub.comDownloaded from
The Use of Nostalgia in Television Advertising: A Content Analysis 347 sent, particularly during periods of instability on either the personal or public level, can be met by daydreaming about the future or by glorify- ing the past. Ads that call up nostalgic images and feelings help to draw the viewer back to that seemingly more pleasant time. The sociology of nostalgia would appear to suggest that current threats would induce an emotional readiness for indulging in nostalgia.
Additionally, the use of nostalgic elements may arouse curiosity- based attention. As long as the tactic is perceived to be novel, it may facilitate such curiosity. However, there are two drawbacks to the use of novelty. The first is that it may detract from the message so that the tac- tic is remembered but the brand or benefit is lost. Second, novelty is lost when repeated or imitated frequently. The prolieration of nostalgic appeals could, therefore, reduce their impact as a curiosity-based means of gaining attention.
Message comprehension may be augmented by employing nostalgic elements to create cognitive associations between images of bygone times and product characteristics. The use of older p e o p l e for exam- ple, Orville Reddenbacher- as spokespersons for food and beverage products might convey old-fashioned flavor or goodness. Far from dis- tracting from the main message, the characters and settings reinforce the meaning to be attributed to the product.
Receptivity to an ad may involve either affective or cognitive accep tance of the message. While affective response is often excluded from information processing models, nostalgic ads may create an emotional response that enhances receptivity. h k e r , et aL5, for example, found that warmth in advertising impacts positively on attitude toward the ad and purchase likelihood. Some nostalgic appeals fit well into the defini- tion of warmth used in that study.
Credibility or persuasiveness in an ad is enhanced by backing up the claim or distracting the viewer to prevent counterarguing. Where posi- tive associations, as described in regard to message comprehension, have been created strategically, the credibility could be enhanced. On the other hand, if the nostalgic elements are merely distractions, they could hamper comprehension, and receptiveness would be a moot issue.
Nostalgic elements may aid in retention of the ad message Ci com- prehension was not impaired by the tactic). To the degree that such ele- ments relate to the individual’s need for escape, they could be more likely to be remembered. Additionally, those which are novel or inter- esting enough a r e likely to be discussed with others and such “rehearsal” further enhances memorability. One study has shown nos- talgic ads to have a retention power superior to nonnostalgic counter- part ads!
Research Questions The preceding rationale for why advertisers might employ nostalgia
tactics and the explanation of how nostalgia functions in a general social-psychological sense suggest investigation into three key issues:
1) How is nostalgia in advertising defined? Might there be a taxone 5. David A Aaka, b u d a s M. Slayman and Michael R Haeerty. Warmth in Advertidno: Meamremen\ hpaa
6. Diane M. N e b , John A Faia and Lyneae S. Unger, ?he Effed of Nostalgic Advertising: An Experiment,’ in and S e q u s r e E [ k c t 4 ’ J a n d o / C ~ r R ~ ~ , 12:365381, (Mmh 1986).
RiwdiWJlwlk Sndbrrlrn Mhtiw Cm/mru (1989). by guest on November 24, 2014jmq.sagepub.comDownloaded from
348 JOURNALISM QUARTERLY my of different nostalgic appeals?
2) How often do nostalgic advertisements actually appear on televi- sion? Which types of nostalgia occur most often?
3) Are nostalgic ad appeals used more frequently for certain product categories?
In this study, Phase I of the method focused on the first research question. Phase 11, a content analysis of television commercials, addressed the second and third questions.
Method Phase I. The f i s t step in defining and measuring a concept is to speci-
fy its d ~ m a i n . ~ In the case of nostalgia, this was done by asking a conve nience sample of undergraduate advertising students (n = 154) to pro- vide written responses to the following openended question:
Many advertisements that we see today are nostalgic or contain elements of nostalgia. Please describe any nostalgic ads you can think of and tell what in the ads makes them nostalgic.
The responses were then coded and tabulated by one judge. Seven different nostalgic elements were identified, as shown in Table 1.
Given the recognized weaknesses of student samples, even in pilot research, a sample of ten expert judges (advertising and marketing pro- fessors) was then asked to assess the seven dimensions. They were posed the following questions:
1. Do you think this is a complete list, or can you add any other ele ments that make an ad nostalgic?
2. Do you think that any of these elements do not belong? Agreement by half of the expert sample would justify adding or dropping a dimen- sion.
Phase ZZ. For the content analysis phase, spot and network television advertisements were selected during a two-week period in February 1987. Threehour time periods (9:OO a.m. - 12:OO noon, 1:OO - 490 p.m. and 8:OO - 11:OO p.m.1 were sampled across all three networks. Weekday morning programming accounted for 23% of the ads. Some 37% were taken from weekday afternoon, 25% from weeknight and 16% from weekend programming. ARC was slightly underrepresented. Some 29% of the ads were sampled from that network, while 35% and 36% were taken from CBS and NBC respectively. Total sample size was 1,031 ads. Some ads (202) were duplicates. However, these were retained in the sample, because there was no significant difference in the frequency of nostalgic appeals between duplicates and the whole sample o> < .01). Moreover, duplication of certain ads simply indicates greater media weight, and they consequently should be included. The sampling plan was comparable to other television content analyses conducted by advertising researchers.'
Two judges separately assessed each ad for the six elements of nos- talgia (reflections on past experiences with family and friends, olden
M , I M ~ ~ R C W O ~ L . i 6 s n (1~9. 7. Cimert A Churduil, Jr., 'A Paradigm for Developing Bet& M c m m for Markcring Corrahucb.'Jarrd cf
8. Ronnld E Bush. Paul I. Solomon d Joseph E Hair, Jr.. 'A Content Analysis of the Porbaypl of Blrk Models in Magazine Mvertiaing,' in M d r f i w g k the 8~2: Chumga and Chalkages. I? Begoni, e t d., e d i m (197?). md Joecph R. Dominick and Bradley S. Greenberg, 'Three Seasons of Blvks on Television'Jarnal o/Adwrfuirg Rruorr*, 1021-27 (April 1970).
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The Use of Nostalgia in Televbion Advertising: A Content Analysis 349
days, period symbolism, period music, old brands, patriotism). Product category was also recorded. If an ad contained one or more of the nos- talgic elements, it was considered to be a nostalgic ad. Interjudge relia- bility was assessed as percent agreement (on the nostalgic/non-nostal- gic variable) across all ads. The two judges agreed on 890 (86%) of the 1,031 commercials analyzed. This is within the 85% acceptable range suggested by Kas~arjian.~ Only ads judged nostalgic by both judges were counted as nostalgic.
To answer the third research question, a chi square test was per- formed to assess nostalgic ad frequency among product types.
Resutts Phase I - Student Sample and Expert Panel. When asked to describe
nostalgic advertising and the elements that make particular ads nostal- gic, the students identified seven dimensions (shown in Table 1). The element that was mentioned most often was fond reflection of past fami- ly experiences (25% of the total responses). Descriptions of this type of nostalgic experience included fond memories of growing up, especially in terms of interaction with family and friends. This nostalgic element tends to be centered more around the notion of private nostalgia. Kodak ads seem to inspire such emotions since they attempt to reinforce the importance of capturing one's personal past on film.
A second major type of nostalgic element identified, 20% of all men- tions, was the reference to 'olden days." This type of nostalgia appears to be more of a public nostalgia. It is centered around old and traditional values, old-fashioned values, and the good old days. Often there is a direct reference to the use of an older spokesperson in the commercials cited. Also mentioned were older celebrities such as Joe DiMaggio for Mr. Coffee or the older athletes in Miller Lite ads.
Two additional elements, period-oriented symbolism and music, were identilied as major nostalgic devices, drawing 16% and 15% of the total responses respectively. Period-oriented symbolism includes reference to the imagery of the past (for example poodle skirts, slicked back hair, bobby socks, and other 1950s symbolic imagery).
Period-oriented music, like symbolism, offers a recognizable element of the past. Even when the lyrics in the songs are changed to fit the product being advertised, respondents still identified the music as being nostalgic. While comments from the student sample tend to be focused on music and symbols from the 1950s and 1960s. the older expert judges referred to other periods, such as the 1930s and 1940s. Both symbolism and music appear to be a mix of private and public nos- talgia
These first four nostalgic elements, (reflections on past family experi- ences, olden days, period-oriented symbolism, and period-oriented music) accounted for 77% of all mentions. Three other responses made up the remainder.
Receiving 9% of total mentions is an element of nostalgia called "old brands." Commonly mentioned in this regard were old brand names, old brand characters, and old brand spokespersons. Examples included the revival of Mr. Clean, the Quaker Oats character, and the Marlboro
9. Harold H. Kaswjian. 'Content Analysis in Conauma Resurch,'jmnd o / C a c u n n R c r r d , 4:&18 (Mm-ch 1977). by guest on November 24, 2014jmq.sagepub.comDownloaded from
350 JOURNALISM QUARTERLY man.
Another nostalgic element (3% of mentions) is patriotism and nation- alism. This type of nostalgic element included notions such a s “Buy American,” and elements celebrating the American heritage.
Table 1 Nostalgic Elements Contained in Advertising
Element % of All Mentions
1. References to past family experiences *Fond memories of growing up *Fond memories of family member interaction *Fond memories of friends
2. References to ‘olden days” *Old-fashioned quality *Old-fashioned values
Good old days *Use of older people as spokespersons *Use of older celebrities
*Imagery from ‘ N s , ‘ a s , ‘Ws, ‘60s *Imagery from other periods
References to earlier symbols or icons (art,
3. Periodaientcd symbolism
religion, education, fashion, medical practices) 4. Periodwiented music
*Use of golden oldies *Popular music from ‘50s and ‘60s
*Use of old brand M ~ S *Use of old brand charactershpokespcrsons
Revival of old brand names *Use of actual old ads or clips
Buy American *Celebration of American heritage
*High emotions with no tie to the past Seasonal holiday events
*No consensus
5. References to old brands
6. Patriotism
7. High emotion’
8. Don’t know
25
20%
16%
15%
9%
3%
3%
8%
‘Indicates exclusion from the content analysis because 5 of the 10 expert judges indicated it was inappropriate.
High emotional content (such a s goodwill in Christmas ads) was mentioned 3% of the time a s being nostalgic. In this dimension, howev- er, there is neither a specific reference nor a tie to the past. Because five of the ten expert judges did not believe this element should be includ- ed, it was the only one eliminated from the content analysis framework. Finally, 8% of all mentions indicated inability to recognize nostalgia or recall any nostalgia in advertising. Given the a priori criterion that, in order for a new element to be added, at least five judges had to suggest its inclusion, no new elements were added.
Phase ZI - Content Analysis. Of the 1,031 television commercials viewed, 102 (10%) were assessed a s nostalgic by both judges. As shown in Table 2, period-oriented symbols and music were the most common nostalgic elements used, appearing in 31% and 28% of the ads respective- ly. References to ‘olden days” and to past family experiences appeared
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'The Use of Nostalgia in Television Advertising: A Content Analyis 351 in 18% and 13% of the ads. Less frequent were references to old brands and patriotism at 8% and 3% respectively. Half of the nostalgic ads con- tained only one of the six elements. Some 44% contained two, and only a few (6%) had three.
Table 2 Frequency and Combinations of Nostalgic Elements
Frequency References to past family experiences References to "olden days" Period4entcd symbolism Periodaiented music References to old brands Patriotism
Combinations A d s containing one of the six elements A d s containing two Ads containing three
Frequency 20 28 49 44 12
Li 158
52 44 6 102
% of Occurrences 1 3% 18% 30% 28%
8% 3 100%
50% 44% 3 100%
Results of the chi square test indicate significant differences in the incidence of nostalgia among product categories at the p < .01 level of significance. As shown in Table 3, differences were most pronounced in five product categories. Ads for foods and beverages were more likely to contain nostalgic elements, while household cleaning products, cos- metics and children'dbaby products were less likely to contain nostal- gia (p c .05). The other product categories were represented about equally in nostalgic and non-nostalgic advertising.
Table 3 Incidence of Nostalgic Ads by Product Category
Product All Ads Nostalgic Ads # % # %
Food 252 24% 43 42%b Children's and baby products 43 4% b
Medicines 109 11% 11 11% Household cleaning products 125 12% b
Pet products 29 3% 2 2% Services 37 4% 2 2% Personal products 114 11% 7 7% Cosmetics 60 6% b
Beverages 71 7% 14 14%b Non-profit 25 2% 5 5% Automotivc 74 7% 9 9% APpl' lances 6 1% 1 1% RetaiVfashion 15 1% Restaurants 29 3% 4 4% Travcl 17 2% 3 2%
L A 102 100%
Othcr 2 4 2 % 1,030 100%
'Chi square statistic - 1912.52, significant at p < .01 with 15 degrees of f r e e dom
Significant differences (p < .05) by product category
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352 JOURNALISM QUARTERLY Discussion
It is difficult to asses the 10% incidence of nostalgia in television advertising. It might be compared to the frequency of other message techniques. Fear appeals, for example, have been found in 20% of televi- sion ads, humor appears in 17%. comparison advertising has been iden- tified in 23% of television and radio ads and guilt has been used to sell in 3%.1° Although these findings have been reported at different time peri- ods than the current study, one might conclude from these compar- isons that the employment of nostalgia as a creative tactic is moderately popular.
Longitudinal research, however, would yield a more accurate assess- ment of the popularity of nostalgic advertising appeals. While this study provides a benchmark for the use of nostalgia in 1987 advertising, future content analyses studies will establish its longevity as a message technique. Given the compelling reasons for its potential popularity, per- haps even more brands and product categories will employ nostalgia. Conversely, it may be a passing fad, especially if proliferation of the technique diminishes its attention-getting power.
There were some significant differences among product categories as to the tendency to use nostalgia. Food and beverage ads were more likely to employ such tactics while household cleaning products, cos- metics and children’s products were less likely to do so. It would seem that, with the modern consumer, housecleaning should be as conve- nient as possible. If consumers perceive =new and improved” to be a sign of more efficiency in the product, then calling up memories of the past (when cleaning was ‘harder”) could actually create the wrong impression. As for cosmetics, the fashionability of such products would be better served by upto-date imagery. High-tech or fashion product ads might better focus on present or future orientations rather than on the ‘good old days.” For children’s products, particularly in ads target- ed during children’s viewing time, a ‘get the latest,” ‘be the first on your block” strategy would be more effective than showing flashbacks of mom as a youngster with her Barbie doll. Children, having short lives and short memories, do not appear to be good targets for private nostalgia.
Food and beverage ads, on the other hand, were proportionately more likely to use nostalgic elements. One probable factor is public con- cern with quality/purity/ healthfulness of packaged food and beverage items. By attributing old-fashioned production methods to the brand, the consumer may feel it is safer or healthier. While technological advances may be perceived to improve appliances, medicines or clean- ing products, perhaps few perceive that technology has improved the quality of food. If anything, the concerns about preservatives, additives, and artificial ingredients created by technology would lead to more, not less, appreciation for old-fashioned quality.
While the preceding comments make sense for ads promoting old- timegoodness or all-natural ingredients, another explanation may apply to nostalgic ads for snacks, junk foods and fast foods. Since may of these are/were consumed in social settings (parties) , private nostalgia
10. Bill Abrrms, ‘Canpmtive Ad8 Are Getting More Popular, Harder Hitting,’ Wdl Snd Jound, March 11.1982, p.25; bid., Gmsmrr E e h i w l t h Edifim (Chicago: Dryden Press, 1982); and Lyneae S. U n g s and James M. Stemno, ?he Use of Fear end Guilt Messages in Television Advertising: Issues and Evidence,’ in Rocadings/m America# A m o/ALertkin,g G r / r m c r 0934). by guest on November 24, 2014jmq.sagepub.comDownloaded from
77te Use of Nostalgia in Television Advertising: A Content Analysis 353 for better timedfun times (e.g., the 1950s) might be associated, via period music, with the product, even if it was not on the market in the 1950s.
It is also possible that not only the ad but the food product itself has potential to call up memories. Marcel Proust's classic French novel Remembrance of Things Past makes the point dramatically, in that the author's recollections of childhood are triggered by the taste of a partic- ular cookie. More recently Sidney Levy" proposed cognitive processing to occur in anecdotal form, almost as mini-movies of past experiences. The context for his study was the mythical meanings that are associated with foods. If certain food/beverage products (Oreos or Frosted Flakes, for example) have this capability in and of themselves, the tactic of using nostalgic elements in their ads reinforces existing natural attributes and becomes all the more powerful in the marketing strategy.
Finally, in Freudian terms, food and beverage products relate to oral needs, the primary goals of infancy. Food, love and security are consid- ered to be inseparable to the tiny infant." If a food product is associated with "good times" when we felt loved and secure, then the nostalgic ad is playing to our most primal needs as human beings.
Several limitations in this study warrant mention. Fist , the sample of ads analyzed was drawn from only network television programming time. In view of the networks' declining share of audience, future sam- ples should contain cable ads. Second, television, involving both audio and visual, has a greater range of possibilities for use of nostalgic ele- ments. Other studies might address the frequency of nostalgia in other media. Finally, although the panel of experts who helped create the tax- onomy was drawn from a reasonably wide age range, the two judges who content analyzed the ads were similar in age. Perhaps many more ad elements would have been recognized by an older judge who could identify 1930s and 1940s music and symbols or a younger judge who might have labeled 1970s music in ads as nostalgic. If anything, there- fore, the bias would seem to be on the side of underestimating the prevalence of nostatgic elements in television advertising. Future stud- ies might utilize judges with greater age differences.
11. Sidnn I. LFW. lntenn-erinn Comma Mytholorn A Struchval A w r o r h to Consumer Behavior,'Jmnol of
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