Download - The Respiratory System
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The Respiratory System
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ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
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The Respiratory Tract:
The Lungs
Alveoli
TABLE OF CONTENT
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1) Respiratory Tract:Nose through bronchi 2) The lungs.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM CONSISTS OF:
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The respiratory tract
further divided into the upper and lower respiratory tract
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The upper respiratory tract from the nose through the pharynx
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The lower respiratory tract (The Bronchial Tree)
from the larynx to tertiary bronchi
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The Bronchial Tree
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Alveoli
The Bronchial Tree Extends to Bronchioles and Alveoli
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Bronchioles and Alveoli
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Cartilage Plates
No Cartilage but Smooth Muscles
Bronchioles
Cartilage Ring
asthmaattack
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Cross Section Longitudinal Section
Ciliary Lining of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Cilia
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Electron Micrograph of Cilia
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The cilia beat upward and drive the debris-laden mucus to the pharynx, where it is swallowed.
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THE LUNGS
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The Lungs overlap with the respiratory tract.
Secondary Bronchi
Tertiary Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
Bronchioles
Alveoli
Primary Bronchi
Inside Lungs
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THE LUNGS
- consist of the left and the right lungs
- The left lung is divided into two lobes; the right into three.
- receives the
bronchus, blood
and lymphatic
vessels, and nerves
through its hilum.
- The bronchi
extend into alveoli
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ALVEOLI
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~700 SF surface area
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Alveoli consists of :
1) type I alveolar cells (95%), thin
2) type II alveolar cells (5%), secrete surfactant.
3) macrophages (dust cells), defense
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- Each alveolus is surrounded with a basket of capillaries.
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surrounded with capillaries
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The respiratory membrane:
1) the wall of the alveolus
2) the endothelial wall of the capillary
3) their fused basement membranes
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Alveoli contain elastic fibers which helps expiration.
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Low blood pressure keeps alveoli dry.
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Gas exchange occurs only in alveoli.
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Dead Space
- starts from nose to terminal bronchiole
- where there is no gas exchange
- ~ 150 mlterminal bronchiole
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The Respiratory Tract:
The Lungs
Alveoli
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
SUMMARY
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ventilation
gas exchange
transport by blood
gas exchange
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MECHANICS OF VENTILATION
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Driving Force for Air Flow
Resistance to Airflow
Measurements of Ventilation
Alveolar Ventilation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Terms:
inspiration or inhalation: breathing in
expiration or exhalation: breathing out
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Driving Force for Air Flow
Airflow driven by the pressure difference between atmosphere (barometric pressure) and inside the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure).
760 mmHg
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atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg
Before inspiration
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atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg
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atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg
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atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg
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Mechanism for the Change in Intrapulmonary pressure
Boyle’s Law:
Volume x Pressure = Constant
gas
P V
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Volume Pressure Volume Pressure
Inspiration: Expiration:
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Volume Pressure Volume Pressure
Inspiration: Expiration:
Can the lungs expand/shrink by
themselves?
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1) The Diaphragm
2) External Intercostal Muscles
3) Internal Intercostal Muscles
4) The Abdominal Muscles
- the principal muscle of inspiration
- pulls the diaphragm down, increasing all three dimensions of the thoracic cage.
Major Respiratory Muscles
1) The Diaphragm
2) External Intercostal Muscles
- Inspiration muscles
- increases the anteroposterior and transverse dimensions of the chest.
1) The Diaphragm
2) External Intercostal Muscles
3) The Abdominal Muscles
- Expiration muscles
- pulls the diaphragm up, reducing the vertical dimension of the thoracic cage.
1) The Diaphragm
2) External Intercostal Muscles
3) The Abdominal Muscles
4) Internal Intercostal Muscles
- Extra Expiration muscles
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Coupling Between Lungs and Thoracic Cage
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Visceral pleura covers the surface of each lung; parietal pleura lines the chest cavity.
- The lungs and thoracic cage are coupled by the pleurae.
pleural cavity
- The two pleurae form the pleural cavity.
- The pleural fluid serves to reduce friction during chest expansion.
- Intrapleural pressure: The pressure in the pleural cavity is negative.
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Parietal pleura visceral pleura
Potential pleural cavity(negative intrapleural pressure)
lung
The thoracic cage is larger than the natural size of the lungs.
Generation of the negative intrapleural pressure
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Parietal pleura visceral pleura
Potential pleural cavity(negative intrapleural pressure)
air
air
pneumathorax
lung
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Conclusion
Lungs Thoracic Cagepleurae- pressure
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Inspiration
Contraction of1) diaphragm
2) external intercostal muscles
The lungs are carried along.
Lung volume
pressure
Air flows in.
active
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passive
Resting Expiration
Relaxation of1) diaphragm
2) external intercostal muscles
The lungs shrink.
Lung volume
pressure
Air flows out.
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Forced Expiration
Relaxation of1) diaphragm 2) external
intercostal musclesand
Contraction ofabdominal, internal intercostal and other accessory respiratory
muscles.
Lung volume
pressure
Air flows out.
active
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Driving Force for Air Flow
Atmosphere-lung pressure gradient
Major respiratory muscles
Coupling between lungs and thoracic cage
SUMMARY
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Resistance to Airflow
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Resistance
1) Alveolar Surface Tension
2) Elastic Resistance
3) Airway Resistance
Compliance
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1) Alveolar Surface Tension
- generated by a thin film of liquid over the surface of alveolar epithelium,
- tends to cause a collapse of the alveoli,
- Resists against inspiration.
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Alveoli
Alveolar surface tension is a resistance against inspiration.
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- Surface tension is reduced by surfactant. ( type II alveolar epithelial cells)
Pre-term infants don't have enough surfactant.
type II surfactant
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Resistance 1) Alveolar Surface Tension
2) Elastic Resistance
3) Airway Resistance- Against inspiration due to elastic fibers in the lungs and chest wall,
- Increases in pulmonary fibrosis.
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Resistance 1) Alveolar Surface Tension
2) Elastic Resistance
3) Airway Resistance- Due to friction, affected by airway caliber.
- Against inspiration and expiration!
- Increases during asthma attack (smooth muscle contraction in bronchiole.
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Resistance 1) Alveolar Surface Tension
2) Elastic Resistance
3) Airway Resistance
Compliance
- The reciprocal of resistance,
- An indicator of ease with which the lungs expand.
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Measurements of Ventilation using Spirometer
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Dead Space
inspiration expiration
Alveolar ventilation rate =(tidal volume – dead space) x resp freq (/min)
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Restrictive disorders - (pulmonary fibrosis)
- compliance & vital capacity.
Changes in Spirometric Measures
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- No change in respiratory volumes
- FEV1.
one-second forced expiratory volume
Obstructive disorders
Changes in Spirometric Measures
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MECHANICS OF VENTILATION
SUMMARY
Driving Force for Air Flow
Resistance to Airflow
Measurements of Ventilation
Alveolar Ventilation
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NEURAL CONTROL OF VENTILATION
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Rhythm?
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1) inspiratory center
- stimulates inspiration muscles.
2) expiratory center
- inhibits the inspiratory center,
- stimulates expiration muscles.
Center in the medulla oblongata
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The pons fine-tunes ventilation.
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Afferent Connections to the Respiratory Centers
the limbic system
Hypothalamus
Chemoreceptors the lungs
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Chemoreceptor-initiated Reflexes
Peripheral chemoreceptors
- aortic and carotid bodies,
- monitor O2, CO2 and pH of the blood.
Central chemoreceptors
- close to the surface of the medulla oblongata,
- monitor the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid.
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O2, CO2, or pH
stimulate chemoreceptors
reflex
frequency and depth of respiration
CHEMORECEPTOR-MEDIATED REFLEX
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Voluntary Control
- the motor cortex,
- bypass the brainstem
respiratory centers,
- limited voluntary control.
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GAS EXCHANGE in the LUNGS
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ventilation
gas exchange
transport by blood
gas exchange
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- The gas exchange between
alveolar air and the blood is via
diffusion of O2 and CO2.
- Diffusion of a gas is driven
by O2 and CO2 partial
pressure gradient.
PO2 = 40 mmHgPCO2 = 46 mmHg
PO2 = 104 mmHgPCO2 = 40 mmHg
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The partial pressure of a gas refers to the share of the total pressure generated by a mixture of gases.
O2 CO2
N2
H2O
Total = 760 mmHg
5.3%40 mmHg
13.6%104 mmHg
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PO2 = 40 mmHgPCO2 = 46 mmHg
PO2 = 104 mmHgPCO2 = 40 mmHg
Oxygen and carbon dioxide cross the respiratory membrane and the air-water interface easily.
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Overview of Gas Exchange in the Lungs
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Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Alveolar Gas Exchange
1. partial pressure
2. solubility
3. respiratory membrane thickness/area
4. ventilation-perfusion coupling
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O2
CO2
N2
O2 CO2
N2
H2O
Total = 760 mmHgTotal = 760 mmHg
Air
a) High altitudeb) Hyperbaric chamberc) Obstructive disease
PO2104 mmHgPCO2 40 mmHg
1) Partial pressure
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CO2 has a higher solubility than O2.
CO2 O2
Pressure Gradient 6 mmHg 64 mmHg
PO2104 mmHgPCO2 40 mmHg
2) Solubility
PO2 40 mmHgPCO2 46 mmHg
1) Partial pressure
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2) Solubility
1) Partial pressure
3) Respiratory membrane thickness/area
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4) Ventilation-perfusion Coupling
- average V-P ratio = 0.8
- autoregulated by:
2) Solubility
1) Partial pressure
3) Respiratory membrane thickness/area
PO2 and PCO2
causes:1) vasoconstriction of
pulmonary arterioles2) dilation of bronchioles
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summary
1) Driving force for gas exchange
2) Factors that affect the efficiency of alveolar gas exchange
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Gas transport by the blood
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TABLE OF CONTENT
1) Carbon Dioxide Transport
2) Oxygen Transport
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7% dissolved in the blood as a gas,
23% as carbamino-hemoglobin,
70% as carbonic acid in the plasma.
Carbon Dioxide Transport
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Oxygen Transport
- About 98.5% of O2 in the blood are carried by hemoglobin.
- The rest is physically dissolved in plasma.
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Blood Oxygen Content
- average 20 ml/dL
- determined by:
1) saturation of hemoglobin
2) content of hemoglobin
HypoventilationCO poisoning
anemia
Hypoxemia
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Carbon monoxide competes with oxygen for hemebinding with a much higher affinity.
Problem: deoxygenate hemoglobin
Treatment: hyperbaric oxygen chamber
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GAS EXCHANGE in the TISSUES
1. Carbon Dioxide Loading 2. Oxygen Unloading
How to dissociate?
O2
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O2
PO2 dissociation
PCO2 dissociation
pH dissociation
DPG dissociation
(2,3-diphosphoglycerate)
Temperature dissociation
Dissociation of O2 from hemoglobin (HB) is affected by:
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O2High PO2, low PCO2
association with HG
favor the loading of O2
In Lungs
100% saturated
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High PCO2, low PO2,
low pH, DPG
dissociation of O2
from HG
favor the unloading
O2
In tissues
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High PCO2, low PO2,
low pH, DPG
dissociation of O2
from HG
favor the unloading
O2
In tissues
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Utilization Coefficient
- The amount of oxygen uptake by tissue versus the arterial blood oxygen content
blood
20 ml O2/dL
cellcell
cell cell cell
Utilization Coefficient = 4.4 ml / 20 ml = 22%
15.6 ml O2/dL
4.4 ml O2/dL
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Function of Oxygen ?
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with oxygenwithout oxygen
glucose
2 ATP 38 ATP
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Can human beings produce oxygen?
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Oxygen Toxicity
- Excessive oxygen generates hydrogen peroxide and free radicals, which destroy enzymes and damage nervous tissue.
- Oxidative toxicity with aging.
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Hypercapnia
- PCO2 < 37 mmHg - caused by hyperventilation
Hypocapnia
- PCO2 > 43 mmHg - caused by hypoventilation (respiratory diseases)
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Summary of the Respiratory System
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ventilation
gas exchange
transport by blood
gas exchange
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Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
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Oxygen Dissociation & Temperature
Active tissue - more O2 released
PO2 (mmHg)
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Oxygen Dissociation & pH
Bohr effect: release of O2 in response to low pH
Active tissue - more O2 released