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1
The Biosphere
Chapter 58
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Effects of Sun, Wind, Water
• Biosphere: includes all living
communities on Earth
• Global patterns of life on Earth are
influenced by
1. The amount of solar radiation that
reaches different areas
2. Patterns of global atmospheric
circulation which influence oceanic
circulation
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Biomes
• Biomes: a major type of ecosystem on
land
• Each biome has a characteristic
appearance
– Defined largely by sets of regional
climatic conditions
• Biomes are named according to their
vegetational structures
• 8 principle biomes with 6 others
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Distributions of biomes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
taiga temperate evergreen forest
temperate deciduous foresttundra
polar ice mountain zone
tropical rain forest
tropical monsoon forest
warm, moist evergreen forest
savanna
temperate grassland desert
semidesertchaparral
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Biomes
Predictors of biome distribution
Temperature and precipitation
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Sem
idesert
450400350300250200
Mean Annual Precipitation (cm)
15010050
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
–5
–10
–15
Mean
An
nu
al
Tem
pera
ture
(°
C) Hot
desert SavannaTropical
rainforest
Temperate
evergreen
forest
Taiga
Tundra
Temperate
grassland Temperate
deciduous
forest
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The correlations of primary productivity
with precipitation and temperature
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a.
b.
500 100 200
Precipitation (cm/year)
300 400
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
–10 0–5 5 1510 2520 30
500
0
1000
1500
2000
2500
Temperature (C)
Pro
du
cti
vit
y (
g/m
2/y
ear)
Pro
du
cti
vit
y (
g/m
2/y
ear)
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Biomes
• Tropical rain forests
– 140–450 cm rain/yr
– Richest ecosystems
on land
– High temperature
and high rainfall
– Very high diversity:
1,200 species of
butterflies in a single
square mile
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• Savanna
– 50–125 cm rainfall/yr
– Tropical or subtropical grasslands
– Occur as a transition ecosystem
between tropical rainforests and deserts
– Serengeti of East Africa
Biomes
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• Deserts
– 25–40 cm rainfall/yr; unpredictable
• Plants and animals cannot depend
on any rainfall
– 30˚N and S latitudes – due to global
air circulation patterns
– Due to rain shadows
– Vegetation sparse, animals adapted
to little water availability
Biomes
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• Temperate grasslands or prairies
– Rich soils
– Grasses with roots that penetrate deep
into the soil
– In North America converted to
agricultural use
– Adapted to periodic fire
Biomes
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Biomes
• Temperate deciduous forests
– Mild but seasonal climates
(warm summers and cold
winters), plus plentiful rains
• Temperate evergreen forests
– Occur along coastlines with
temperate climates
• Taiga and tundra
– Both stretch in unbroken circles
around the entire globe
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Freshwater Habitats
• Fresh water covers only 2% of Earth’s surface
• Life depends on oxygen availability
– Oxygen per liter is only 5% of that in the
atmosphere
– Oxygen added by photosynthesis and aeration
from the atmosphere
– Oxygen is removed by animal and detritivore
respiration, and through decaying organic matter
– Warm water holds less O2 than cooler water
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Freshwater Habitats
• Lake and pond habitats change with water depth
– Intensity of light decreases with water depth
– Photic zone: area where light penetrates and photosynthesis is possible
– Littoral zone: shallows at edge of lake
– Aphotic (benthic) zone: below light penetration level
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Freshwater HabitatsCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Productivity
Lake Zones and Productivity
Littoral
zone
Photic
zone
Aphotic
zone
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Marine Habitats
• 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by ocean
• Continental shelves: near coastlines, water is not especially deep
– ~ 80 km wide and 1 m to 130 m deep
• Average depth of the open ocean is 4,000–5,000 m deep
– Trenches: 11,000 m deep
• Principle primary producers are phytoplankton (single cell or colonial)
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Marine Habitats
• Banks and coral reefs
– Banks are local shallow areas on the shelves
• Fishing grounds
– Coral reefs occur in subtropical and tropical latitudes
– Defining feature is stony corals
• Algal symbioses: cnidarians and dinoflagellates
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Marine Habitats
• El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
– 2–7 years on an irregular and unpredictable basis
– Coastline waters become profoundly warm
– Primary productivity unusually low
– Weakening of the east-to-west Trade Winds
– Upwelling continues, but only recirculates the thick, warm surface layer
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Marine Habitats
• El Niño can wreak havoc on ecosystems
– Plankton abundance can drop to 1/20th normal levels
– Fish stocks disappear
– Seabirds and sea lion populations crash
• On land
– Heavy rains produce abundant seeds and land birds flourish
– Increase rodent population
– Increase predator population18
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Marine Habitats
El Niño winter
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Wetter
Wetter and
cooler
Warmer
Warmer
Warmer
Warmer
Warmer
Wetter and warmer Drier
Drier
EI Niño
Sea temperature
higher than normal
Wetter and
warmer
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Marine Habitats
• Deep sea: cold, dark place with
fascinating communities
– Seasonless, 2–5˚C; pressure: 400–
500 atm
• Food originates from photosynthesis in
the sunlit waters
• 99% eaten as it drifts down through the
water column
• Animals: small-bodied, thinly distributed
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Marine HabitatsHydrothermal vent communities: thick with life
• Large-bodied animals
• Do not depend on the Sun’s energy for primary production
• Depend on sulfur-oxidizing bacteria
• Water temperature up to 350˚C
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a: © Jim Church; b: © Ralph White/Corbis; b(inset): NOAA Pacific Marine
Environmental Laboratory’s Vents Program
a.
b.
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Human Impacts: Pollution
• Human impacts can cause adverse
changes in ecosystems
• DDT: highly effective insecticide,
sprayed in United States after WWII
– DDT is oil soluble and biomagnifies in the
food chain
– Result of use
• Populations of ospreys, bald eagles, and
brown pelicans plummeted
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• Biomagnification of
DDT concentrations
in the food chain
• Predatory bird
species were
affected because it
made their
eggshells so thin
that the shells broke
during incubation
Human Impacts: Pollution
DDT Concentration
25 ppm in
predatory birds
2 ppm in
large fish
0.5 ppm in
small fish
0.04 ppm in
zooplankton
0.000003 ppm
in water
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
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Human Impacts: Pollution
• Freshwater habitats are threatened by
pollution and resource use
• Point source pollution: comes from an
identifiable location
– Factories
– Sewage-treatment plants
• Laws and technologies can be applied
because the source is known
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Human Impacts: Pollution
• Diffuse pollution: is exemplified by eutrophication caused by excessive run-off of nitrates and phosphates
– Dissolved oxygen declines
– Fish species change, carp take the place of more desirable species
• Can originate from thousands of lawns, farms, golf clubs, etc.
• Solutions depend on public education and political action
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Human Impacts: Pollution
• Pollution from coal burning: acid precipitation
– When coal is burned, sulfur oxide is released
– Sulfur oxide combines with water in the atmosphere to create sulfuric acid
• Mercury emitted in stack smoke is a second potential problem
– Mercury can interfere with brain
development in human fetuses and infants
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Human Impacts: Pollution
• Acid precipitation and mercury pollution
affect freshwater ecosystems
– pH levels below 5.0, many fish
species and other aquatic animals die
or are unable to reproduce
– Mercury accumulates in the tissues of
food fish: dangerous to public health
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Precipitation pH
<4.3>5.3pH values of rainwater
in the United States
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Damage to trees by
acid precipitation at
Clingman’s Dome,
Tennessee.
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• Terrestrial ecosystems are threatened
by deforestation
– Single greatest problem is deforestation by
cutting or burning
• An example is rainforest destruction
Human Impacts: Pollution
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a. b.a: © Environmental Images/agefotostock; b: © Frans Lanting/Corbis
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Human Impacts: Pollution
• Deforestation consequences
– Loss of habitat
– Major contributing factor in increased
desertification
– Loss of nutrients from soils
– Nutrient enrichment of bodies of
water downstream
– Disruption of the water cycle
– Acid rain31
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• Overfishing of the ocean
– Single greatest problem in the ocean
realm
Poaching on
terrestrial
animals
increases
when fish
populations
decline
Human Impacts: Pollution
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
100
total biomass in
the ecosystem
biomass taken
by fishing
200619991992
Year
19851978
0
20
40
60
80
We
igh
t o
f F
ish
(th
ou
sa
nd
s o
f m
etr
ic t
on
s)
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Human Impacts: Pollution
• Pollution effects in the ocean
– Plastic found washed up on beaches
in remote areas
– Waters are laced with toxic chemicals
– Biopsy of tissue from Arctic killer
whales reveal high levels of
pesticides and flame-retardant
chemicals
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• Stratospheric ozone depletion
– Ozone hole: over Antarctica between
1/2 to 1/3 of original ozone
concentrations are present
Human Impacts: Pollution
34
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio
20112010
2009
2008
2001–2010 average
DecemberNovemberOctoberSeptemberAugust
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
So
uth
ern
Hem
isp
here
Ozo
ne H
ole
Are
a
(millio
ns o
f sq
uare
kilo
mete
rs)
a. b.
South
Pole
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Human Impacts: Pollution
• Over United States
– Ozone concentration has been reduced by about 4%
• Stratospheric ozone is important because it absorbs UV radiation (UV-B)
• UV-B damages tissue, increases risks for
– Skin cancer: 1% drop in ozone leads to a 6% increase in skin cancer
– Detrimental to amphibians35
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Human Impacts: Pollution
• Ozone depletion and CFCs: Major cause of ozone depletion are chlorine-and bromine-containing compounds in the atmosphere
• Use of CFCs are being phased out in many countries
• CFCs are chemically stable in the atmosphere for many years
• Ozone depletion will continue to occur until all of the CFCs are broken down
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Climate Change
• CO2 and other gases in the atmosphere
maintain the Earth’s average
temperature at 25˚C higher than it
would be without these gases
• Human activities are now changing the
composition of the atmosphere;
increasing the CO2 and other gas levels
• Because of the increase, global
temperatures are increasing, causing
global warming37
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38
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
–4.1 –0.5 –0.2 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 4.4
2011 Surface Temperature Anomalies (°C)
–2 –1–4
NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies
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Climate Change
• Based on a variety of different
scenarios, computer models predicted
that global temperatures would increase
1.1°C to 6.4°C (2.0–11.5°F) by the
end of this century
• Some countries will come out ahead,
others will come out behind
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Climate Change
• Carbon dioxide is the major greenhouse
gas
– Other atmospheric gases also
involved
• All authorities agree that the cause of
this steady rise in atmospheric CO2 is
the burning of coal and petroleum
products by the increasing (and
increasingly energy-demanding) human
population40
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The greenhouse effect
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Year
390
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
–0.1
–0.2
Carb
on
Dio
xid
e C
on
ce
ntr
ati
on
(p
pm
v)
An
nu
al
Glo
ba
l Te
mp
era
ture
An
om
ali
es
(°
C)
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Climate Change
• How CO2 affects temperature
– CO2 absorbs electromagnetic radiant
energy
– Earth receives radiant energy from
the Sun
– Earth also emits radiant energy
– The Earth’s temperature will be
constant only if the rates of these two
processes are equal
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Climate Change
• The atmosphere allows in short wave
radiant energy from the Sun, but does
not allow the long wave radiant energy
from the Earth to escape
• This is the same principle as a
Greenhouse
Short wave – in, long wave –
cannot get out, increase in
temperature in the
greenhouse
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Climate Change
• Other greenhouse gases
– Methane: 20 times the heat trapping properties of CO2, less concentration in the atmosphere, less long-lived
– Methane is produced globally in anaerobic soils and fermentation reactions of ruminant mammals
– Methane is locked up in permafrost
• Sudden release will cause large perturbation in global temperature
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Climate Change
• Other greenhouse gases
– Nitrous oxide: agricultural use of fertilizers is the largest source
– Energy consumption
– Industrial use
• Evidence confirms global warming
– Ice free seasons 2.5 weeks longer
– Ice at the North Pole decreased
– Glaciers decreasing in size
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Climate Change
Disappearing glaciers
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Climate Change
• Global temperature change has affected
ecosystems in the past and is doing so
now
– Shift in species’ geographic ranges
– Migratory birds arrive earlier at their
summer breeding grounds
– Insects and amphibians breed earlier
– Wild fruit fly populations – changes in gene
frequency
– “Bleaching” of reef-building corals47
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Climate Change
• Problems
– Rate of warming today is rapid
– Evolutionary adaptations for species
survival may not have time to occur
– Natural areas no longer cover the whole
landscape
– Species that shift to higher altitudes may
have reached the peak of the mountain
– Species’ habitat disappears entirely
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Climate Change
• Effects on agriculture
– Positive: more CO2 tends to increase
growth of some crops
– Increase pollen production causing
more severe allergies
– More droughts in some regions
– Decrease in crop production in
tropical areas
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Climate Change
• Human health
– Frequent flooding = loss of safe drinking water
• Cholera and other epidemics may occur more often
– Tropical diseases may invade nontropical countries
• Malaria
• Dengue fever
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