Running Head: BIOPSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION
The Biopsychological Basis of Religion and Spirituality
Christy M. Fagiana
Southern New Hampshire University
“It is by understanding the brain that an understanding of the mind is discovered”~ Author unknown
BIOPSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION
Abstract
This paper considers the biopsychological basis of religion, religious experiences and
spirituality. It seeks to discover the answer to the question “Is God real?” Throughout this paper,
the author will explore the history of psychology and religion, the structure and function of the
religious brain and the spiritual mind, current research regarding religion and possible direction
of future research. In addition, during the course of this presentation, the author will address
various theories regarding why religious and spiritual belief appears to be so essential to the
human species, the purpose of religion, and the value of religious and/or spiritual participation.
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The Biopsychological Basis of Religion and Spirituality
It is the opinion of this author and of many other professionals who have performed
research in the field religion and psychology that most human beings have little choice but to
adhere to a religious paradigm. Religion allows humans a sense of control over a capricious
environment through contractual agreements with gods, spirits and other personalized,
personified power sources. The creation of religious myths provide explanations the world
around them and helps orient them within the universe. These myths make up the foundations of
religion and provide guidance towards experiencing religious and/or spiritual phenomena –
altered states of consciousness that generate a sense of unity with another enigmatic realm or
being that is perceived as superior and divinely perfect. The human brain is hardwired with
cortical functions that allow humans to solve abstract problems and determine causality.
However, these higher cortical functions also enable humans to transcend their immediate
perceptual field. This ability makes humans terribly aware of their mortality and of the
contingency of their existence. The result is an existential anxiety that must be reconciled.
Therefore, God.
Although it has been more than a century since Sigmund Freud published his first article
on the psychoanalytic psychology of religion, not much changed in the discussion. Considered a
significant contributor to the literature on the subject, Freud has been inaccurately accredited
with the theory of religion as a demonstration of projection or as a neurosis. However, Ludwig
Feuerbach proposed the theory of religion as a manifestation of projection in 1840 – nearly 70
years before Freud published his first article. Feuerbach alleged that God was “an objectified
externalization of the essence of human nature” and projection “a mental operation in which the
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subject denies something of [themselves] (qualities, feelings, wishes) and ascribes it to someone
or something else” (Belzen, 2010, p 7).
While Freud held a very negative opinion of religion, believing that it affirmed things
about reality that science had shown to be untrue, he did not regard it as projection. He did agree,
however, that projection played a big part in religion. Freud believed that religion was archaic –
part of a stage in humanity’s development that should be left behind. He thought that the origin
and role of religion were understandable and that “being religious may support a person’s
individual mental functioning [and] may help prohibit neurosis” (p 4) by helping individuals
cope with life.
In 1956, Fokke Sierksma published a book of “exceptional scientific quality” (p 11)
based largely on the assertions of novelist Simon Vestdijk. Sierksma’s book, titled The Religious
Projection: An Anthropological and Psychological Study of the Phenomena of Projection in the
Various Religions, proposed a functional definition of religion in which religious projection is a
normal defense mechanism resulting from human limitations and inadequacy. He argued that
human beings are searching to pinpoint that fine line between what is real and unreal because of
the ability to recognize that perception does not always reflect reality as it truly is.
Kenneth Pargament, one of the best known present researchers in the field, agreed with
Freud on the many points but challenged psychoanalysts with the question “How helpful or
harmful are particular forms of religious expression for particular people dealing with particular
situations in particular social contexts according to particular criteria of helpfulness or
harmfulness?” (Pargament, 2002, p 168). He also agreed with Freud that being spiritual or
religious could impact an individual’s mental functioning by helping them cope with their life.
Pargament suggested that the stress-vulnerability model uses the relationship between biological
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and psychosocial factors to determine the onset and course of mental illness. He also believed
that religious and/or spiritual coping can work as a positive or negative resource. Pargament
suggested religious coping serves “five purposes:
Spiritual (meaning, purpose, hope) Self-development (positive identity) Resolve (self-efficacy, comfort) Sharing (closeness, connectedness to a community) Restraint (helps keep emotions and behavior under control)
Positive coping can help control symptoms while negative coping may be related to symptoms
and outcome of mental disorders” (Hughlett & Mohr, 2013, p 2).
While there does not appear to be any new progress towards answering the fundamental
psychological questions regarding religion, the discussion has sparked insights in other areas of
science including neurobiology, cognitive science, and evolutionary psychology. Although these
other disciplines do not put to rest the questions regarding religion, they enhance and expand on
an understanding of the biopsychology of religion and religious concepts that cannot be achieved
by studying the psychology of religion alone.
For example, in 1936, Heije Faber’s neurobiological research justified the attention
psychoanalysts give to early childhood. Faber found that the structural foundation of neural
synapses in the brain responsible for perception and religious expression are formed during
childhood (Belzen, 2010, p. 10). Also, an American anthropologist and evolutionary
psychologist known for his work in the cognitive science of religion, Pascal Boyer, studies the
cognitive mechanisms that predispose the human brain towards religious and spiritual themes.
The cognitive science of religion states that the endurance of any form of religion depends on the
ability of the human mind to process and facilitate the concepts held by that religion and that said
religion will never be able to be anything other than what can be processed by the human mind.
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Boyer himself claims that “the way the human mind has been prepared to take in certain types of
information and treat them in a certain way; evolution as it were has equipped the mind with
predispositions about the existence and causal powers of non-observable entities and agencies
(Boyer, 2001). Finally, while the evolutionary standpoint in and of itself does not appear to be
psychological, it provides a framework to which psychological explanations can be applied.
Evolutionary psychologist Stewart Guthrie stated that humans are genetically “biased… to
interpret ambiguous things and events as if they were of great importance” (Belzen, 2010, p 24).
Thus, evolutionary psychology promotes the thought that the neuropsychological mechanisms
that inspire spiritual and religious behaviors are “thoroughly ingrained in the human gene pool
(d’Aquili & Newbert, 1998, p 187).
Research from multiple fields of psychology are at the forefront of recent advances in the
investigation of the mental processes and neuropsychological mechanisms of religious and
spiritual experiences. Biologically, there are several specific neural mechanisms within the
human brain that activate when an individual participates in religious or spiritual practices. These
mechanisms, in the words of Andrew Newbert and Eugene d’Aquili, are called the causal
operator, the binary operator, the emotional value operator and the holistic operator. These
operators are cognitive networks of nerve tissue in the brain that interpret human perceptions of
reality including the abstract concepts of time and space, the dichotomy of opposites, cause and
effect, and the logical ordering of elements into causal chains which result in both scientific and
non-scientific explanations of their external world; the emotional value operator provides an
emotional response to the information. Therefore, in nearly any given situation if the initial cause
is not or cannot be realized by human senses the binary operator recognizes the incongruity
between what is known and what is unknown. This results in the emotional value operator
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initiating a feeling of disquiet and unease that the mind is compelled to reconcile. So, the causal
operator postulates an origin that enables humans to perceive causality in the form of “Gods,
powers, spirits, demons or in general what we have come to call personalized power sources”
(d’Aquili & Newbert, 1998, p 191). Finally, the holistic operator creates a feeling of wholeness
or unity of reality that is greater than the typical perception of unity in everyday life. In other
words, the holistic operator puts forth a revised understanding of reality that enables the
individual to perceive themselves as one with their god and their universe. It should also be
noted that religious lore almost always involve opposites, right and wrong or good and evil, that
are in conflict with each other; The conflict is subsequently resolved by way of the myth.
According to the psychology of religion, religion serves two major functions: it is a
system of self-maintenance and a system of self-transcendence. Psychological self-maintenance
is the process by which humans seek answers to the question “Who am I?” Alternatively,
psychological self-transcendence answers the question “What is my purpose?” while allowing
and encouraging an individual to fully focus on someone or something other than themselves.
Yet, before one can fully understand the functions of religion, one must understand the function
of the human body, brain, and mind.
To begin with, think of the brain as the structure that performs all of the functions and the
mind is the product of these functions. The brain is constantly receiving sensory input from the
body via the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and it uses this input to regulate various body
functions in order to maintain homeostasis. There are two divisions of the ANS: the sympathetic
nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system
stimulates, organizes, and mobilizes energy resources in threatening situations, whereas the
parasympathetic nervous system acts to conserve energy (Pinel, 2014, p 53). Basically, these two
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systems work together to balance the other’s activity and thus provides the mind’s general
emotional state. However, if one system is overstimulated to maximum activity, the opposite
system actually becomes more active rather than being suppressed as is typical. This activation
of the opposite system is referred to as “spillover, because it is as if there is a spillover of activity
from the overstimulated system into the other system” (d’Aquini & Newbert, 2000, p 55).
Considering how the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
interact with each other, there are five basic emotional states that result when the activity of
either one or both systems is very high. The first four states - profound calm, hyper-arousal,
active bliss and tranquility (p 56) may be routinely experienced by individuals who meditate or
those that run marathons. However, the fifth state occurs when the sympathetic nervous system
and the parasympathetic system are both fully activated and spilling over into each other at the
same time. This state is rare and is associated with “spontaneous mystical states such as near-
death experiences” (p 56). During this experience, the individual may have visual and auditory
hallucinations while feeling a “deep and profound quiescence with a sense of extreme alertness,
awareness… and unity” (p 56).
The human brain operates to deliver two basic versions of reality: one of distinct,
individual beings and another of unity with an absolute being. The complex interactions between
perceptions, memories, cognitive judgments, and physiology determine which reality will
presented. Key components of these complex interactions, and thus responsible for the creation
of reality, are the limbic system, cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala, and the autonomic
nervous system.
The cerebral cortex, which is involved in higher order thinking and behavior, functions to
analyze the external world. It contains several association areas that produce an integrated
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understanding for each individual and the world in which they live using the input received by
the senses. The frontal lobes are home to the prefrontal cortex and the attention association area.
They are also the location of part of the causal operator. The remainder of the causal operator is
located in the parietal lobes and includes the extensive neural connections between the lobes.
The temporal lobes are involved in object recognition and linking emotional reactions to
the objects (Livingston, 2005, p 83). Not surprisingly, the limbic system is located in the
temporal lobes. The limbic system is responsible for the regulation of emotion and survival-
motivated behaviors including fight or flight, feeding, and sex. Within the limbic system, the
amygdala controls aggression and emotional experience, recognition and regulation. Not
surprisingly, the emotional value operator discussed previously is located within the limbic
system. Crucial for the emotional response involved in religious and spiritual experiences, the
emotional value operator connects the limbic system to all of the other operators and provides an
emotional response to all input the brain receives. In addition, the hippocampus is located in the
medial temporal lobes and is part of the limbic system. The hippocampus is part of the circuitry
of the orientation association area (OAA) which interprets audio, visual, and somatosensory
input to create a three-dimensional perception of “body” and enables the individual to judge
between the two categories of reality mentioned above. The OAA is divided between the left and
right hemispheres. The OAA within the right hemisphere defines the physical space in which the
three-dimensional body can exist while the OAA within the left hemisphere creates an
understanding of a limited, physically-defined body. The holistic operator discussed earlier can
be found in the hippocampus.
While the function of religious and spiritual experiences involve neurobiological factors,
psychological processes [of the mind] are also fundamentally involved in the experiences
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(Fayard, Pereau, & Ciovica, 2009, p. 168). The Theory of Mind posits that the circuitry involved
in the development and maintenance of attachment connects to “higher cortical areas where
cognitive processes categorize and organize systems of belief. Theory of mind is the cognitive
foundation for a personal spirituality” (p. 176) which causes an unconscious and conscious need
for God. Attachment Theory is a psychological model that describes the dynamic of
interpersonal relationships, typically between humans (Santrock, 2009). It is a motivational and
behavioral system that directs the individual to strive for closeness with a trusted caregiver with
the expectation of receiving emotional support and protection. Studies indicate there is a
complex connection between childhood attachment patterns and adult attachment to a God or
other omnipresence; if the individual is securely attached, they display a secure attachment to
God, if the individual is insecurely attached, they either display an insecure attachment to God or
do not consider God as a source of security, support or protection.
In addition, the seeking system, which activates during religious or spiritual experiences,
appears to play a role in the search for a relationship with God, positive existential meaning, and
spiritual or philosophical insights. The seeking system is a basically a motivational engine that
drives complex mental operations and has its roots in early childhood development. This system
is a dopamine neurotransmission system that responds to positive incentives but also to
emotional challenges and stressful conditions in which the individual is persistently compelled to
find a solution. The seeking system initiates whenever the individual becomes overwhelmed by
the sensory stimulation received from their world. This influences the individual to explore
options for attaining the security, support, and protection they deem as necessary. Over time, the
seeking system creates a distinctive, salient landscape within the mind that details the emotional
implication of everything in the individual's personal reality using input from their stored
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knowledge (Santrock, 2009). It is important to remember, however, that these psychological
processes only function in the context of the individual’s ability to make choices and impose
these choices on their personal reality.
For decades researchers relied on the human electroencephalogram (EEG) to discover
what was happening in the brains of religious or spiritual individuals. EEGs measure the
electromagnetic field near the scalp that is produced by brain activity. Activity within the brain
produces electromagnetic fields large enough to be measured because the cells in the cerebral
cortex are consistently aligned and oriented in columns. An enormous amount of research has
been dedicated to measuring EEG under normal conditions as well as during neurological and
psychiatric disorders. Normal EEG has well-defined characteristics during sleep, during the
onset of sleep, during quiet moments with eyes closed and when awake/alert, therefore, it is easy
to identify abnormalities. Abnormal brain activity, such as failure of normal regulation and
inhibition in complex neural circuits, are identified by high-voltage spikes that disrupt typical
sensorimotor and cognitive control patterns. Mild anomalies may cause the individual to
experience a vague sense of disorientation or déjà vu. Serious disturbances can result in vivid
sensory experiences in which God, demons, and angels are perceived and clearly remembered
afterward. Individual subjective reports of being in the presence of a God who was outside of
ordinary time and space yet who spoke to them and inspired strong feelings of awe are quite
common. Validation studies provide “direct empirical evidence that there are correlation and
causal connections… [between major EEG anomalies and]… experiences of mystical or divine
encounters” (Livingston, 2005, p. 85).
Current neuroscience research has greatly expanded an understanding of how the human
brain functions during the most profound spiritual and religious experiences. Imaging studies
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using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), single photon emission computed
tomography (SPECT), and positron emission tomography (PET) illustrate specific
neurophysiological events that are linked to religious and spiritual experiences. These techniques
provide a functional map of the brain by measuring blood flow, metabolism, and
neurotransmitter activity within specific brain structures. For instance, researchers have assessed
the changes in cerebra activity during glossolalia (speaking in tongues) using SPECT and
discovered that the decreased activity in the prefrontal cortices are consistent with the altered
emotional state described by individuals singing religious songs or hymns. Studies using fMRI
found that activation of the frontal lobes explain the intrinsically fulfilling quality of spiritual
experiences. PET studies found that different types of prayer are associated with specific brain
regions.
In fact, the connection between religious ritual such as meditating or prayer and mystical
experiences has been documented. Researchers discovered that ritualistic behavior “produces
changes in brain areas associated with sense of self, focus of attention, and contents of
consciousness” (Livingston, 2005, p. 91). EEG data showing increased alpha-frequency activity
suggests “a decrease in brain activity, but the SPECT data indicate an increase in activation, a
pattern observed in positron emission tomography (PET) studies of meditators as well”
(Livingston, 2005, p. 91). These results are reconciled if it is recognized that meditation results
in a decrease in the orientation association area and hyperactivity in the attention association
area, which explains the absence of abstract complex thinking, a reduction in self-awareness, and
an expanded sense of time and space accompanied by heightened awareness of external sensory
input. Consequently “these changes appear to be the direct consequence of engaging in a
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ritualized activity” (Livingston, 2005, p. 99) and thus provide evidence supporting the core
beliefs of the religious doctrine.
Interestingly, research has also found that experiences such as those described above can
be induced by a procedure called transient temporal lobe spiking creating the argument that
“religious systems tend to promote practices that increase the likelihood of religious experiences
that are easily interpreted as evidence in support of core beliefs of the tradition (Livingston,
2005, p. 75). Still others believe that defining correlates for specific behaviors or experiences
provide “few, if any, insights into causative factors. Even if a certain brain structure were
strongly associated with religious experience, this says nothing about whether the structure
generates that experience” (Jones, 2010, p. 125). The methods discussed may ascertain which
parts of the brain are associated with religion and religious experiences but these “correlations do
not point unequivocally to the neural basis of morality or consciousness, [because] their
overtones are mechanistic in nature (Jones, 2010, p. 123).
Therefore, further investigation of the connection between neurobiological, affective and
cognitive processes involved in the human experience of God is warranted to delve into the
question of causality. Do the structures of the brain generate the experience or do the affective
and/or cognitive processes of the mind during the experience elicit the changes in the brain? In
other words, which comes first - the chicken or the egg?
Another possible area of future research concerns the connections between symptoms of
psychosis and/or mental health diagnoses and spirituality or religiosity that leads to undesirable
behaviors such as intolerance and fanaticism. This paper and the resource literature have described
spirituality and religiosity as protective factors against alcohol abuse, drug use, and suicide by
promoting a positive sense of self, a healthy lifestyle and by providing a supportive social network.
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This author would be interested in research that delves into the dark side of religion, religious
practices and spiritual experiences because “religion can be anything in connection with mental
health and psychopathology: a cause of mental illness, but also a prophylactic, a therapy, a
medium through which a disorder becomes manifest” (Belzen, 2010, p 29).
“It is a common assertion that there is a fundamental epistemological divide between
religious and secular ways of knowing. The claim is that knowledge of the sacred rests on faith,
while knowledge of the natural world rests on the evidence of our senses (Livingston, 2005, p. 75)
but a review of the literature concerning the biopsychological basis of religion, religious
experiences and spirituality indicate there are still reasons to believe in the supernatural. Religion
and spirituality including mystical experiences are complex phenomenon that cannot be explained
by any one psychological perspective and biology does not provide all the answers either. The fact
is that “religion is human reality” (Belzen, 2010, p 28). So, does that mean that God is real? Well,
yes – if one perceives that God is real, then God is real to them because as humans we do create
our reality.
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