Symmetrical and asymmetrical effects of expressed sadness when negotiate with
person under time pressure
Master Thesis Exposé
Submitted by
Stoyko Stoynov
At University of Kassel
Faculty: International Business Administration
Program: European Master of Business Studies
Kassel, Germany
14.12.2014
Sadness under time pressure 2
CONTENTS
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 3
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 4
Literature Review ..................................................................................................................... 5
2 Negotiation: Definition, characteristics, and factors influencing the results .................... 5
2.1 Definition and characteristics ................................................................................... 5
2.2 Factors influencing the process and the results......................................................... 5
2.2.1 Interdependence ................................................................................................ 5
2.2.2 Trust and relationship ....................................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Culture .............................................................................................................. 7
2.2.4 Negotiation style ............................................................................................... 8
2.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 9
3 Emotions: Definition, characteristics, and emotions as process and as categories ......... 14
3.1 Definition and characteristics ................................................................................. 14
3.2 Emotions as categories ........................................................................................... 14
3.3 Emotions as process ................................................................................................ 15
3.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 15
4 Emotions in negotiations ................................................................................................ 21
4.1 Emotions as social information (EASI) theory ....................................................... 21
4.1.1 Affective reactions .......................................................................................... 21
4.1.2 Inferential processes ....................................................................................... 22
4.1.3 Information processing ................................................................................... 22
4.1.4 Perceived appropriateness and social context ................................................. 22
4.2 Symmetrical and Asymmetrical model ................................................................... 23
4.2.1 EASI perspective ............................................................................................ 23
4.2.2 Evidences for symmetrical effects and asymmetrical effects ......................... 24
5 Propositions (Hypothesis) ............................................................................................... 29
6 Methodology ................................................................................................................... 31
7 Structure of the thesis ..................................................................................................... 32
8 Time schedule ................................................................................................................. 33
9 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 34
Sadness under time pressure 3
ABSTRACT
In this study I investigate the effects of sadness expression in negotiations in order to
find out if there are symmetrical and asymmetrical effects when the observer is under
time pressure. An experiment of face to face negotiations with students was conducted.
There were three variations of the negotiations task that were handed out to the
participants: sadness manipulation, time pressure manipulation, and neutral to both
emotions and time. I expect that sadness expression would help in situation in which
the counterpart is not influenced by the time and will have negative reactions if the
other party is under time pressure. If the hypothesis turn out to be true then there is
evidence for symmetrical and asymmetrical effects of sadness expression in
negotiation.
Keywords: sadness, time pressure, negotiation, emotion and negotiation, Emotions as
Social Information (EASI) theory, interpersonal effects of emotions
Sadness under time pressure 4
1 INTRODUCTION
Both expressing emotions and negotiations are part of the everyday life of the human
beings. Moreover, these two processes are interrelated. For instance, the negotiation
over the time when the rooms should be cleaned between the parents and the children
might evoke anger in the former and might upset the later. Furthermore, the emotions
and their interpersonal effect could be used strategically of both the parents and the
children to influence the outcome of the negotiations (Van Kleef, De Dreu, &
Manstead, 2004b, p. 511 b). However, the success depends on the situation (Van Kleef
& Côté, 2007, p. 1558). For example, if there are the new neighbors coming for a lunch
one day and for the children there is just an ordinary meeting with friends than the
anger of the parents will prevail because it is more appropriate. In contrast, if it is the
biggest pool party this day and for the parents it is just a day off work then the sadness
will provide the children with a postponement. In the recent years the interest in
studying those interpersonal effects of emotions has been growing. Most of the studies
focused on examining the effects of anger and happiness using the information van
Kleef (2009; 2014) built up a model which posits that there are both symmetrical and
asymmetrical effects of the expressed emotions. These effects are driven by affective
reactions or/and inferential process which in turn are influenced by the information
processing depth and the perceived appropriateness (Van Kleef, 2014, p. 1158). On
the other hand, the emotions like sadness and their interpersonal effects in negotiations
have not attracted much attention but only one study conducted by Sinaceur,
Kopelman, Vasiljevic, and Haag (2014). The results show that sadness could be
successful strategy when the expresser is perceived as low-power, when a future
interaction is anticipated, and when to blame the others is inappropriate. However,
there is still a gap which needs to be filled in order to integrate the dimension of sadness
into the EASI model. This paper’s goal is to fill in the gap by conducting one
experiments of face-to-face negotiation. It will research if observers under high time
pressure neglect the sadness of the other party. Combining the outcomes of the
experiment in this paper and the ones performed by Sinaceur et al. (2014) will provide
me with enough evidence that there is symmetrical and asymmetrical effects of
expressed sadness in negotiations as a result a new dimension could be added in van
Kleef’s model (2014, p. 1157).
Sadness under time pressure 5
LITERATURE REVIEW
2 NEGOTIATION: DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS, AND FACTORS INFLUENCING
THE RESULTS
2.1 DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
Negotiation is a process which occurs “when persons or parties pursue different
interests and communicate with each other to reach an agreement” (Opresnik, 2014, p.
1). There are several characteristics that are common for every negotiation process.
First of all, the parties involved must be at least two or more. Secondly, there must be
interdependence between the parties. Moreover, the power of the participants must be
more or less equal. Furthermore, there must be “a conflict of interest”. In addition,
both parties must be ready to concede from their demands. Last but not the least, the
final goal of the process must be achieving an agreement.(Lewicki, Saunders, &
Minton, 1999, p. 6; Opresnik, 2014, p. 2)
2.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PROCESS AND THE RESULTS
2.2.1 Interdependence
Two parties are interdependent when they rely on each other to reach their goals. The
issues the parties negotiate could be distributive (fixed-pie) or integrative also known
as zero-sum and non-zero-sum situations (Lewicki, Saunders, & Barry, 2011, p. 10;
Lewicki et al., 1999, p. 8; Thompson, 2009, p. 3).
In the fixed-pie situation the gains for one of the parties means losses for the other
because they are negotiating over a limited resources. However, also in these situations
an agreement could be reached because the parties have different preferred prices
(target points) and bottom lines (resistance points). The spread between the latter is
called zone of possible agreement (ZOPA). When the buyer’s resistance point is lower
than the seller’s one there is positive ZOPA and in the reverse situation there is
negative ZOPA. In order to reach an agreement the ZOPA must be positive and since
the parties do not reveal their resistance points in the beginning of the negotiations in
the case of negative ZOPA they have to change them if they want to seal the deal
Sadness under time pressure 6
(Lewicki et al., 2011, pp. 29–31, 1999, pp. 70–74; Thompson, 2009, pp. 41–44).
According to Thompson “The best possible economic outcome for the negotiator is
one that just meets the counterparty’s reservation point, thereby inducing the other
party to agree, but allows the focal negotiator to reap as much gain as possible.” (2009,
p. 43). Roger Fisher and William Fury developed a concept called “best alternative to
a negotiated agreement (BATNA)” (1991, pp. 101–111) which helps to gain more out
of distributive negotiations. First of all, having a BATNA helps for determining the
reservation point of a negotiator, though, it is not a static value. Furthermore, one could
use the BATNA to manipulate the reservation point of the counter party. Moreover, if
one knows that his BATNA is better than the counterparty’s he will be able to gain
more concessions in the process and achieve better result (Lewicki et al., 2011, pp.
29–34, 1999, pp. 70–78; Thompson, 2009, pp. 44–51).
On the other hand, the integrative situations occur when the goals of the parties
involved in negotiations are not mutually exclusive. These win-win situations exist in
almost every negotiation, however, due to failure to exchange enough information,
failure to understand other’s needs and lack of flexibility in finding common solutions
people are unable to identify these possibilities. Leigh Thompson posits nine strategies
that helps negotiators to find integrative solutions. In the first place negotiators are
more successful in expanding the pie when they take the prospective of the other side.
Furthermore, people should ask questions about the interest and preferences of the
counterparty because it is a way to understand what is valuable for the others.
However, it is also important not only to ask questions but also to provide information
about one’s priorities. Besides negotiators should try to divide a complex issue into
several smaller in order to satisfy different preferences. However, these issues should
be negotiated in package and several offers of equal value should be made
simultaneously. Another prerequisite for reaching integrative negotiation is to discuss
the differences instead of ignoring them as a result those difference could be
capitalized on different strengths of preference. The two last strategies proposed by
Thomson are related to presettlement (PreSS) and postsettlement settlements. The
former could be used to establish framework for the final negotiations or to resolve
subset of the issues. In contrast with the postsettlement the parties agree on attempting
to improve the signed agreement with another preferred more from both (2009, pp.
81–93; See also: Lewicki et al., 2011, pp. 62–87, 1999, pp. 107–138;).
Sadness under time pressure 7
2.2.2 Trust and relationship
The results of a negotiation are influenced by the trust and the relationship between
the parties engaged in the process. Establishing trust is very essential for reaching a
final agreement. The trust in a relationship is based on behavioral consistency,
knowledge about the counterpart, and empathy with the other’s desires and intentions.
The first strategy to be developed is through rational and deliberate mechanisms. This
includes separating people from the problem, consent on common goals and vision,
concentrate on the future. On the other hand, there are psychological strategies such as
find similarities, multiple meetings, reciprocity, schmoozing, flattery and self-
disclosure which are increasing the trust in people. The last but not the least important
factor is the reputation of the negotiators. To build up strong one people should know
that the process of forming impressions is often automatic and is based on limited
information resulting either in halo effect (positive impression) or forked-tail effect
(negative impression). In addition, people’s reputation is not only based on other’s
impression about us (firsthand) but also on secondhand information received from
someone else. (Fisher & Ury, 1991, pp. 17–40; Luecke, 2003, pp. 109–119;
Thompson, 2009, pp. 128–158)
2.2.3 Culture
Culture is playing great role in negotiation process. The challenges that people
encounter when they are involved in international negotiations are indeed very
significant even the definition of the process itself could differ across cultures. For
example, Americans understand negotiations like competitive process while the
Japanese see them as opportunity. There are also cultural differences related to the
selection of the negotiators because across cultures the criteria knowledge, matter of
negotiation, gender, age, experience, and status have different importance. Another
distinction between the cultures is the formality of the process. For instance the
Americans are rarely stick to the protocol while cultures as French, German, and
British are very strict about the rules. Next important factor is how the cultures
perceive time. People in the United States have high sensitivity and they appear on
time for the appointments and try to finish as early as possible. In contrast, in countries
such as Latin American ones where the climate is warmer the people do not pay that
much attention on time but on the task they are doing. As a result of the different
Sadness under time pressure 8
perception the Americans might see the others as time wasters while in contrary they
could be perceived as not paying attention to the negotiations. Moreover, some cultures
are more risk aversive and they try to seek for more information before taking
decisions resulting in an increase of the duration of the negotiations. Furthermore,
some cultures are group-oriented as Chinese while others such as Americans have
more individualistic approach. This could have various effects on the negotiations such
as slow decision-taking process, starting over the negotiations due to change of the
counterparty’s negotiator. Another milestone in international negotiations is the nature
of agreement. In some cultures such as the American the final agreement is formalized
and based on the legal system. On the other hand, in China people will often sign a
memorandums of agreement before starting the real negotiations which is mistaken by
the Americans as a final agreement. Last but not the least, is the difference in the
emotionalism across cultures. There are evidences that there are rules in a culture
which govern the expression of emotions.
Lewicki, Saunders, and Barry suggested different strategies to cope with the culture in
international negotiations according to the level of familiarity. In the case of low
familiarity they advise to hire agent, advisor or mediator who is familiar with both
cultures. When the negotiators have moderate familiarity the authors suggest to adopt
some of the other’s behavior or to coordinate the behavior of both sides either
implicitly or explicitly and to establish a common ground. Negotiators with high
familiarity should use completely the other’s approach, create together with the other
party a new way to negotiate or to adopt the approach of a third culture if both parties
are familiar with it (Lewicki, Saunders, & Barry, 2010, pp. 342–356; Lewicki et al.,
2011, pp. 230–250, 1999, pp. 379–406; Thompson, 2009, pp. 258–291).
2.2.4 Negotiation style
Although in theory there are 8 types of negotiation styles only three of them are
frequently used. First of all is the individualistic style where the final goal is to
maximize the benefit while being indifferent about the value for the other. The other
two are the competitive and cooperative ones. With the former people aim to maximize
the difference in the profit between the parties, while negotiators using cooperative
style prefer to reach equality (Thompson, 2009, pp. 96–105) Another theory by Ury,
Brett, and Goldberg cited by Thompson posits that in negotiations people use one of
Sadness under time pressure 9
three approaches based on interests, rights, and power. The ones that apply the interest
approach try to understand the other’s needs, desires and concerns. On the other hand,
negotiators emphasizing on rights attempt to establish fairness in the process by using
contracts, norms, rules, etc. Finally the one that rely on power use professional status,
hierarchical position, ultimatums, and intimidation techniques (Thompson, 2009, pp.
105–106). An investigation conducted by Lytle, Brett, and Shapiro showed that
negotiators change their approach several times during the process. In the first and
third part of the negotiations the participants used more rights and power compared to
the second and fourth quarters. In addition, the results showed that the participants
reciprocate the other’s behavior but with different rates as follows interests (42%),
power (27%), and rights (22%) (1999, pp. 31–49).
On the other hand, the negotiation style is influenced by the emotions and emotional
knowledge of the participants. Moreover, the one’s emotions has intrapersonal and
interpersonal effects. Both could be used as strategic tool to gain edge in the
negotiations or they could be just natural expressions of the feelings (Lewicki et al.,
2011, pp. 129–133; Opresnik, 2014, pp. 33–40; Thompson, 2009, pp. 119–127). More
about the emotions and the effects they have in the negotiations will be presented in
the next parts of the paper.
2.3 CONCLUSION
Negotiations are very complex process and involves at least two parties which are
interdependent and as a result to achieve their goals they need to reach an agreement.
The success in the process depends on factors such as ZOPA, BATNA, trust and
relationship, culture and negotiations style of the participants. In order to be successful
negotiator one has to have knowledge how to use the factors to be able to avoid the
milestones in the negotiations.
Title Authors Journal,
Book,
etc.
Content
Getting to yes
2nd ed.
(Fisher & Ury,
1991)
Book Method for successful negotiation
was developed. It includes 4
elements:
Sadness under time pressure 10
1.Separate the people from the
problem
2.Focus on interests, not positions
3.Invent options for mutual gain
4.Insist on using objective criteria
Negotiation 6th
ed.
(Lewicki,
Barry, &
Saunders,
2010a)
Book 1.Negotiation fundamentals
a. The nature of negotiation – list
of the characteristics,
interdependence, value claiming,
value creation, conflict
b. Strategy and tactics of
distributive bargaining –
BATNA, fundamental strategies,
tactical tasks, positions, concession,
commitment, closing the deal,
c. Strategy and tactics of
integrative negotiation – the
process, key steps, alternative
solutions, factors for success,
d. Negotiation: Strategy and
Planning – stages and phases,
analyzing the other party
2.Negotiation Sub processes
a. Perception, cognition, and
emotion – perception, framing,
cognition biases, positive and
negative emotions
Sadness under time pressure 11
Negotiation
readings,
exercises and
Cases 6th ed.
(Lewicki,
Saunders, &
Barry, 2010b)
Book 1.Negotiation Fundamentals
a. Three approaches to resolve
disputes: Interest, rights, and
power – relation between them,
cost, and choosing the best
approach in the situation
b. Selecting a strategy – There are
4 strategies, namely avoiding
(Lose-Lose), competitive (Win-
Lose), accommodating (Lose-Win),
collaborative (Win-Win). Choosing
the strategy should depend on the
situation and the preferences of the
negotiators.
c. Balancing act: How to manage
negotiation tensions – The author
presents top 10 list of bargaining
techniques that could help during
tough negotiations. Negotiation
checklist before starting the
negotiations.
d. Effective negotiating
techniques: From selecting
strategies to side-stepping
impasses and assumptions – A list
and explanation of effective
techniques,
e. Closing your business
negotiations - A list of Do’s and
Don’ts
f. Defusing the exploding offer:
The far point gambit- the five
characteristics of exploding offer,
Sadness under time pressure 12
explain the technique called far
point gambit
g. Implementing a collaborative
strategy – characteristics, steps and
success in the collaborative
strategies
h. Solve joint problems to create
and claim value
i. Even in megastores, hagglers
find no price is set in stone
2.Negotiation sub processes
a. Negotiating rationally: The
power and impact of the
negotiator’s frame
a. Managers and their not so
rational decisions – biases
affecting manager’s decisions
b. When your thoughts work
against you – A list of five
mistakes that managers make and
possible solutions to avoid them
c. Untapped power: Emotions in
negotiations – hints how the use of
emotions could help in the
negotiations
d. Where does power come from
– Personal attributes, structural
forces, the fit between situational
requirements and personal traits
e. Harnessing the power of
persuasion - presenting 6
fundamental principles of
persuasion
f. The six channels of persuasion
Sadness under time pressure 13
Negotiation
theory and
research
(Thompson,
2006)
Book Bargaining with feeling:
emotionality in and around
negotiation – defining emotion,
affect in negotiation, predictions of
and predicting affect, tactical use of
emotion, intraindividual emotion,
emotion expression and regulation
The Hand
Book of
Negotiation
and Culture
(Gelfand &
Brett, 2004)
Book 1. The evolution of cognition and
biases in negotiation research –
prospect theory and BDT, and
information processing, self-
perception biases, emotional biases,
consequences of affect, emotional
biases
2. “I Laughed, I cried, I settled”
The role of emotion in
negotiation – definitions,
theoretical research, emotion as
predictor, emotion as an outcome,
emotion as tactic
Sadness under time pressure 14
3 EMOTIONS: DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS, AND EMOTIONS AS PROCESS AND
AS CATEGORIES
3.1 DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
Consequently, to the fact that researchers from different fields such as physiology,
sociology, psychology, neuroscience, and biology study emotions and their effects,
there are many definitions of the term but neither is undisputable. In psychologist’s
point of you emotions are based on the structure of the individual, information flows,
and the dynamic interaction with the environment. Moreover, it is clear that there are
processes previous to the emotions such as appraisal (Frijda, 2008, p. 70). The latter is
defined as internal process of the mind that transform the events happening in the
environment into affective and meaningful ones for the wellbeing (Lazarus, 1991, pp.
133–144). In addition, the appraisal processes differ in complexity from being
automatic to highly cognitive ones (Frijda, 2007, pp. 96–106). Frijda goes deeper and
suggests that there are three intermediaries between the appraisal process and the
behavior (emotion), namely action readiness, affect, and arousal (2007, p. 20). First of
all he posits that emotions are states initiated by external events or objects of action
readiness which are rank according to the importance to the individual (Frijda, 2007,
pp. 25–33). The term “readiness” stands for “being set for action if and when
appropriate conditions arise, and if relevant actions are available in one’s action
repertoire” (Frijda, 2008, p. 72). The second mediator affects is considered by Frijda
as both pleasure and pain (displeasure). According to him the affect is evanescent,
subjective, evaluative, and intentional (2007, pp. 63–66).
3.2 EMOTIONS AS CATEGORIES
Lazarus treat emotions as discrete categories (1991, p. 59). He considers them as
“families of emotions that share a common core relational theme”. Moreover, he posits
that every category could be dimensionalized according to their strength (Lazarus,
1991, p. 68). Although, he agrees with the cluster analysis made by Shaver, Schwartz,
Kirson and O’Connor in which they distinguish six categories of the basic emotions,
namely love, joy, surprise, anger, sadness, and fear, Lazarus states that using only one
word to describe a category brings ambiguity (Lazarus, 1991, p. 68). In order to cope
Sadness under time pressure 15
with the issue he suggests to use sentences instead of words to represent the core
relational theme. For instance, anger would be “A demeaning offence against me and
mine”, happiness is “Making reasonable progress towards realization of a goal”, and
“Having experience an irrevocable loss” is used core of sadness (Lazarus, 1991, pp.
121–126). However, in the recent years the multicomponential and hierarchical
approaches change the understanding of emotion categories into process
conceptualizations. As a result more detailed analysis could be performed on the
components of emotions which will eventually lead to better understanding (Frijda,
2008, p. 77).
3.3 EMOTIONS AS PROCESS
According to the multicomponential emotion theory emotions are “streams of
concurrent and interacting ongoing processes: appraisals that last and change, that
activate processes of action readiness that generate action preparations and overt
actions, which in turn act back upon appraisals and that all vary in degree of activation,
each having different time courses and different moments at which they die down”
(Scherer, 2000 cited by Frijda, 2008, p. 74). In addition, all of the processes could be
evaluated according to their intensity but as the other elements strength is “highly
context sensitive” and could not be defined (Frijda, 2007, p. 155). Furthermore,
emotions often appear in “emotion episodes” which are spread out over time and
contain several emotions. The duration of an episode could range from a few seconds
to hours and days and even for lifetime if sentiments are considered as emotions
(Frijda, 2008, pp. 74–75; Lazarus, 1991, p. 62).
3.4 CONCLUSION
There are many more opinions and views on what emotions are than the one presented
above but neither has given undisputable explanation. Moreover the difficulty of
giving legitimate definitions derive from the disputes over the origin, the function and
the factors influencing the emotions such as experience and motivation. Probably
researchers with complex knowledge in different fields would be able to answer some
of the questions regarding the emotions.
Sadness under time pressure 16
Title Authors Journal,
Book, etc.
Content
Social
functions of
emotions at
four level of
analysis
(Keltner &
Haidt, 1999)
Cognition &
emotion
The four levels: individual,
dyadic, group, and cultural
levels of analysis, social
functions of emotions,
embarrassment case.
Facial
expressions
allow
inference of
both emotions
and
components
(Scherer &
Grandjean,
2008)
Cognition &
emotion
The experiment proves that for
sadness that the message
A model of the
perception of
facial
expressions of
emotion by
humans:
Research
overview and
perspectives
(Martinez &
Du, 2012)
Journal of
Machine
Learning
Research
The author, presents new model
for more accurate “detection” of
the facial expressions. There is
overview of the literature to
justify the model.
On the social
influence of
emotions in
groups: inter
personal
effects of anger
and happiness
on conformity
versus
deviance
(Heerdink,
Van Kleef,
Homan, &
Fischer, 2013)
Journal of
personality
and social
psychology
The way an expression of anger
or happiness reflects on a
perceiver who deviates a
suggestion within the group,
deviance vs. conformity,
influencing the cooperation
within the group
Sadness under time pressure 17
Developmental
relations
between
sympathy,
moral
emotions,
attributes,
moral
reasoning, and
social justice
values from
childhood to
early
adolescence
(Daniel, Dys,
Buchmann, &
Malti, 2014)
Journal of
adolescence
The study was conducted
among 6, 9 and 12 years old
children. It shows that
sympathy, predict moral
emotion attributions, which
predicts moral reasoning.
How group-
based
emotions are
shaped by
collective
emotions:
Evidence for
emotional
transfer and
emotion
burden
(Goldenberg,
Saguy, &
Halperin,
2014)
Journal of
personality
and social
psychology
Intergroup processes are
determine by the collective
emotion in the group. However,
there might be still some
individual emotions which
differ from the collective ones.
This difference brings
nonconformity to the member
of the group.
Emotion,
regulation, and
moral
development
(Eisenberg,
2000)
Annual review
of psychology
Relations of nonmoral emotions
to moral relevant behavior
Sadness under time pressure 18
In search for
“hot”
cognitions:
Attributes,
appraisals, and
their relation to
emotion
(Smith,
Haynes,
Lazarus, &
Pope, 1993)
Journal of
personality
and social
psychology
Two experiments were
conducted which revealed that
appraisal serves as mediator
between attribution and
emotional response
How emotions
regulate social
life: The
emotions as
social
information
(EASI) model
(Van Kleef,
2009)
Current
directions in
psychological
science
Explained after the table
Criteria for
emotion
recognition
from verbal
and nonverbal
expression:
Studying
baggage loss in
the airport
(Scherer &
Ceschi, 2000)
Personality
and social
psychology
bulletin
The research displays that the
verbal reports in a public
situation are regulated, however
nonverbal cues are mediating
the recognition of the emotion.
Voices of fear
and anxiety
and sadness
and depression
(Siegman &
Boyle, 1993)
Journal of
abnormal
psychology
The mood-congruent voice style
for sadness or depression is
slow and soft.
What do facial
expression
convey:
Feeling states,
behavioral
intentions or
(Horstmann,
2003)
Emotion The results of the study support
that facial expressions
communicate emotions (feeling
states in the case of sadness)
Sadness under time pressure 19
action
requests?
How and when
does emotional
expression
help?
(Kennedy-
Moore &
Watson,
2001)
Review of
general
psychology
3 possible mechanisms by
which expression might release
distress: reducing distress about
distress, facilitating insight, and
affecting interpersonal
relationships in a desired way.
Motivated
closing of the
mind:
“Seizing” and
“Freezing”
(Kruglanski &
Webster,
1996)
Psychological
review
Motivated need for closure
Freeze – to preserve closure
Seize – to desire closure
immediately
Making sense
of the social
world and
influencing it
by using a
naïve
attribution
theory of
emotions
(Hareli, 2014) Emotion
review
The author gives better
understanding for the way the
inferential process work during
the social interaction between
people. He also suggests that
there are processes which allow
one to react of the expressed
emotions without necessary
through inferential process but
by automatically triggering
associations to the emotions.
Emotional
influence at
work: Take it
EASI
(Van Kleef,
Homan, &
Cheshin,
2012)
Organizational
Psychological
Review
Explaining the EASI theory in
details and drawing a number of
prepositions which has to be
tested with further research.
Sadness under time pressure 20
Power,
distress, and
compassion
turning a blind
eye to the
suffering of
others
(Van Kleef et
al., 2008)
Psychological
science
The researchers study how
people with relevantly high
social power reacts to the
suffering of the others. The
results show that high power
people appear less motivated to
respond to others emotions.
The laws of
emotion
(Frijda, 2007) Book Contains 9 laws and the
principles they work.
Emotion &
adaptation
(Lazarus,
1991)
Book 1. Emotion as a process
2. Emotion as categories or
dimensions
3. Negative emotions
Handbook of
emotions
(Lewis,
Haviland-
Jones, &
Barret, 2008)
Book 1. Vocal expression of emotion
2. Facial expression of emotion
3. The role of motion in
economic behavior
4. Social functions of emotion
Sadness under time pressure 21
4 EMOTIONS IN NEGOTIATIONS
4.1 EMOTIONS AS SOCIAL INFORMATION (EASI) THEORY
In contrast to the appraisal and attribution theories which are focused on the
antecedents, the EASI is centered on the consequences of the emotional expressions
(Van Kleef, 2014, p. 1148). Based on the social-functional approach to emotion
(Lazarus, 1991, p. 412; Lewis et al., 2008, p. 456) and adding two processes: affective
reaction and inferential processes, this model (see Figure 1) posits that by expressing
emotions one could influence the behavior of the observer through two types of
processes: affective reactions and inferences.(see Figure 1, van Kleef, 2009, p. 184).
4.1.1 Affective reactions
There are two types of affective reaction. The first is created by emotional contagion
where the emotions of the perceiver becomes reciprocal to the ones of the expresser
(Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1993, p. 97). In series of investigations van Kleef et
al. proved that negotiators who faced angry opponent felt angry as well, while on the
contrary, those who were negotiating with happy counterpart experienced happiness
(2004a, p. 71; 2004b, p. 523).The second type of affective reactions take place when
the expressed emotions evoke complementary emotions in the perceiver’s behavior
(Van Kleef et al., 2008, p. 1315). For example, negotiator is concern and feels
compassion if the other is sad and is perceived as powerless (Sinaceur et al., 2014, p.
45; Van Kleef et al., 2008, p. 1320). As a result of the expressed emotions the
observer’s behavior is influenced through “affect infusion” (Forgas, 1995, p. 60).
Figure 1. The emotion as social information model (Van Kleef, 2009, p. 185)
Sadness under time pressure 22
4.1.2 Inferential processes
In general, inferences could be made by the perceivers about the feelings, attitudes,
relational orientation, and behavior intention of the expressers (Keltner & Haidt, 1999,
p. 516). As a result of the easily distinguishable features (vocal, facial, behavioral, etc.)
a lot of information is transferred to the observers (Hareli & Hess, 2010, pp. 138–139).
Consequently, in negotiations one might infer that the other is angry because of the
offers made until now and this inference might lead to further compromises (Van
Kleef, 2014, p. 1149). However, the predictive power of the information processing
depends on the individual’s information processing and the appropriateness of the
situation (Van Kleef et al., 2012, p. 316; Van Kleef, 2009, p. 186).
4.1.3 Information processing
The relation between anticipation ability of one’s inferences and information
processing is positive. Meaning that in order to achieve more accurate inferential
process the epistemic motivation for decoding the expressed emotions has to be high
(Van Kleef et al., 2004b, p. 523, 2012, p. 186). Supporting these statements are the
results of several experiments conducted by Van Kleef and Oveis who found out that
negotiators which are not under time pressure, had low power, or low need for
cognitive closure make higher concessions to angry participants because the former
infer that their offers are the reason for the expresser’s emotions (2008, p. 1320).
Another evidence are brought by Sinaceur et al.’s investigation in which the
negotiators which counterparts were sad compromised when a future interaction was
anticipated and less when it was known for sure it was on time negotiation (2014, p.
45).
4.1.4 Perceived appropriateness and social context
The power of the inferences and affective reactions is influenced by the social context
and perceived appropriateness (Van Kleef et al., 2012, p. 316). According to Shields
inappropriate situations considered to be one contradicting the normative expectations
(Shields, 2005, pp. 12–13; see also Van Kleef & Côté, 2007, p. 1566). Showing
emotions which are comprehended as inappropriate for the situation brings negative
emotions in observers (Bucy, 2000, p. 194). There are several factors which defines if
Sadness under time pressure 23
expressing emotions is relevant for the situation. First of all the variation in culture
could alter the perception of the expressed emotions (Van Kleef et al., 2012, p. 317).
There are evidences that in individualistic societies showing anger is considered as
acceptable compared to collectivistic ones where it is extremely inappropriate
(Kitayama, Mesquita, & Karasawa, 2006, p. 900). Furthermore, the perceived
appropriateness rely on the intensity and authenticity of the displayed emotions (Van
Kleef et al., 2012, p. 317). An investigation showed that intense anger is comprehended
as unfitting resulting in negative reactions (Geddes & Callister, 2007, pp. 729–738).
Another study proved that faked emotions are considered to be used as a strategy to
gain edge in the negotiations which results in negative affective responses and in
competitive behavior (Côté, Hideg, & Van Kleef, 2013, pp. 461–462; Van Kleef et al.,
2012, p. 318; Van Kleef, 2014, p. 1150). Other factors influencing the appropriateness
of the situation are personality traits and status (Van Kleef et al., 2012, p. 318). For
instance harmony oriented individuals become hostile towards angry expressers
(Graziano, Jensen-Campbell, & Hair, 1996, pp. 831–833). Moreover, if the latter is
perceived with lower-status or with equal status compared to the observer it will elicit
negative response because it is perceived as not relevant to show anger against peers
(Porath, Overbeck, & Pearson, 2008, pp. 1968–1970). Furthermore, in another
investigation Sinaceur et al. came up with the results that the positive effects of
expressing sadness outstrip the ones of anger when it was considered as not appropriate
to blame the other (Sinaceur et al., 2014, p. 45).
4.2 SYMMETRICAL AND ASYMMETRICAL MODEL
4.2.1 EASI perspective
There are three key EASI prepositions that refers to symmetrical and asymmetrical
emotion effects (See Table 1, Van Kleef, 2014, p. 1151). According to the EASI theory
the symmetrical/asymmetrical outcomes of the expressed emotions depends on the
discussed above “thorough information processing” and “perceived appropriateness”.
In this train of thoughts, asymmetrical effect would be noticed if the observer has
higher epistemic motivation to infer the expressed anger. However, if the situation is
perceived as inappropriate then it will elicit negative reaction (symmetrical effect). On
the other hand, in the situation of expressed happiness symmetrical traits would be
noticed when inferential process is weak and asymmetrical when the situation is
perceived as not relevant to be happy. Moreover, the same features could be notice
when negotiators express sadness (Sinaceur et al., 2014, pp. 45–46).
Sadness under time pressure 24
Proposition 1 Emotional expressions shape the
judgments, decisions and actions of
those who perceive them by triggering
affective reactions and/or inferential
processes in the perceivers.
Proposition 2 Perceivers’ responses to others’
emotional expressions are more likely to
be driven by inferential processes
(relative to affective reactions) to the
degree that perceivers engage in more
thorough information processing.
Proposition 3 Perceivers’ responses to others’
emotional expressions are more likely to
be driven by negative affective reactions
(relative to inferential processes) to the
degree that perceivers view the
emotional expressions as inappropriate.
4.2.2 Evidences for symmetrical effects and asymmetrical effects
In two separate studies conducted by Van Kleef et al. (2004a), and Sinaceur and
Tiedens (2006) was found that inferential processes influence the interpersonal effects
of anger and happiness. In the first one the observers conceded more to angry
counterparts compared to happy ones because they perceived the former’s limit to be
high. In the second investigation angry expressers were perceived to be tougher than
neutral ones. In addition, it was proven that relation between the negotiation power of
the participants has reciprocal relationship with their epistemic motivation meaning
that the latter is higher for low-power negotiators compared to high-power ones (Van
Kleef & Côté, 2007, p. 1566; Van Kleef et al., 2008, p. 1320; Van Kleef, De Dreu,
Pietroni, & Manstead, 2006, p. 577).
Table 2. Key propositions of EASI theory that inform an analysis of symmetrical
versus asymmetrical interpersonal effects of emotional expressions in organizations
(Van Kleef, 2014, p. 1152)
Sadness under time pressure 25
Title Authors Journal,
Book, etc.
Content
Understanding
the positive and
negative effects
of emotional
expressions in
organizations:
EASI does it
(Van Kleef,
2014)
Human
Relations
Complete literature review on the
topic and building up model of
the way the expression of anger
and happiness works in
negotiation.
Weep and get
more: When
and why
sadness
expression is
effective in
negotiations
(Sinaceur et
al., 2014)
Journal of
Applied
Psychology
The first research dedicated to
how the expression of sadness in
negotiation influences the
outcomes.
Figure 3. Theoretical model for analysing the (a)symmetrical effects of expressed
emotions (Van Kleef, 2014, p. 1157)
Sadness under time pressure 26
Power and
emotion in
negotiation:
Power
moderates the
interpersonal
effects of anger
and happiness
on concession
making
(Van Kleef,
De Dreu,
Pietroni, et
al., 2006)
European
Journal of
Social
Psychology
5 experiments were conducted
and it was proven that negotiators
with higher bargaining power
(HPN) are less influenced by
emotions while those with less
(LPN) are affected. Moreover,
when the other party express
anger then the LPN made higher
concession compared with when
happiness was expressed.
The
interpersonal
effects of anger
and happiness
in negotiations
(Van Kleef et
al., 2004a a)
Journal of
Personality
and Social
Psychology
3 experiments were conducted
and it was proven that anger leads
to lower demands and higher
concessions whereas happiness
leads to higher demands and
lower concessions. The effect is
mitigated if the opponent
undermines the motivation to
take his emotions into
consideration. In addition it was
proven that the effect is removed
when the opponent sends angry
messages.
The
interpersonal
effects of
emotions in
negotiations: A
motivated
information
process
approach
(van Kleef et
al., 2004b)
Journal of
Personality
and Social
Psychology
The paper shows that a negotiator
is affected by the expressed
emotions of the counter party
only when he is motivated to
consider them. For instance,
when there is low time pressure
or low power. The contrary is
also valid as people who are
under high time pressure and
have high bargaining power
Sadness under time pressure 27
which results in reduced
information processing.
Supplication
and
appeasement in
conflict and
negotiation:
The
interpersonal
effects of
disappointment,
worry, guilt,
and regret
(Van Kleef,
De Dreu, &
Manstead,
2006)
Journal of
Personality
and Social
Psychology
The paper includes 3 experiments
which prove that expressing guilt,
shame and embarrassment
(appeasement) increase the
demand and decrease the
concession in negotiations. While
emotions such as sadness,
disappointment, fear, and worry
(supplication) has the reverse
effect for both demand and
concessions.
Expressing
anger in
conflict: When
it helps and
when it hurts.
(Van Kleef &
Côté, 2007)
The Journal
of Applied
Psychology
The researchers adopted a dual
model where the emotion of
anger (appropriate, inappropriate,
no emotion) is crossed with the
power of the other party (high or
low power).
Sadness under time pressure 28
Longer-term
consequences
of anger
expression in
negotiation:
Retaliation of
spillover?
(Van Kleef &
De Dreu,
2010)
Journal of
Experimental
Social
Psychology
The researchers studied the effect
of anger in long-term.
Conducting 2 experiments they
discovered that the expression of
anger has so called spillover
effect and influence the future
negotiation. As a result the
counter party makes concessions
as they perceive the expresser as
though and more ambitious. On
the other hand, the researchers
proved that if party apologies for
previous angry behavior then the
other develops favorable
impressions and are willing to
engage In future negotiations.
Get mad and get
more
(Sinaceur &
Tiedens,
2006)
Journal of
Experimental
Social
Psychology
The two experiments verified that
expressing anger works in a
positive way when the other
participant in the negotiations
consider his other options as
poor.
Are you talking
to me?!
Separating the
people from the
problem when
expressing
emotions in
negotiations
(Steinel, Van
Kleef, &
Harinck,
2008)
Journal of
Experimental
Social
Psychology
The findings show that the
interpersonal effect of anger and
happiness highly depends on the
target of the emotion: behavioral
or person-oriented.
When the emotions target the
former anger brings more
cooperation than happiness. On
the contrary when the emotions
target the person the anger elicits
less cooperation then the
happiness.
Sadness under time pressure 29
Emotions as
strategic
information:
Effects of
other’s
emotional
expressions on
fixed-pie
perception,
demands, and
integrative
behavior in
negotiation
(Pietroni,
Van Kleef,
De Dreu, &
Pagliaro,
2008)
Journal of
Experimental
Social
Psychology
The study shows that in particular
combinations of emotional
expression such as the expression
of anger on the low priority issue
and happiness on the high priority
issue in the may increase the
chance of the negotiators to find
integrative solution of the fix-pie
perception.
Unfixing the
fixed pie: A
motivated
information-
processing
approach to
integrative
negotiation
(De Dreu,
Koole, &
Steinel,
2000)
Journal of
Personality
and Social
Psychology
The research reveals that an
integrative outcome of a
negotiation depends on the
nondirectional motivation of the
participants. Meaning that people
with high nondirectional
motivation encode the
information they give in a better
way which results in mutually
beneficial agreement at the end.
5 PROPOSITIONS (HYPOTHESIS)
Emotion/Situation Situation A:
- High time
pressure
Situation B:
- Low time pressure
Sadness
Neutral
Proposition 1: Negotiators expressing sadness will claim more value in Situation B
compared to Situation A.
Sadness under time pressure 30
Proposition 2: Negotiators expressing sadness will claim more value In Situation B
compared with neutral expression in Situation B.
Proposition 3: Negotiators expressing sadness will claim less value in Situation A
compared with the neutral emotional expressers in Situation A.
Proposition 4: The difference in the claimed value between the neutral expresser in
Situation A and in Situation B will be insignificant.
All of the proposition are in accordance with the EASI theory(Van Kleef et al., 2012).
The first one refers to the appropriateness of the situation. According to the theory
when there is low time pressure the observer’s motivation to consider the emotions of
the expresser is higher which will lead to higher concessions by the former (Sinaceur
et al., 2014; Van Kleef et al., 2004b). The second and the third proposition are
supported by the EASI theory and previous studies on expressing anger and happiness.
Following the same pattern it is expected that the value claimed by sad expresser will
be higher than the value gained by neutral participant in situation A while in situation
B the converse is expected to be true in other words symmetrical and asymmetrical
effects. (Van Kleef et al., 2004a; Van Kleef, 2014). Finally I expect not to have any
significant difference in the gained value between the situations in the neutral
condition as noticed in the experiments conducted by Sinaceur et al. (2014).
If the experiment proves that the propositions are true I will be able to combine my
results with those of Sinaceur’s paper (2014) and to state that there are enough
evidence for symmetrical and asymmetrical effects of sadness in negotiation.
Sadness under time pressure 31
6 METHODOLOGY
Following the examples of previous studies (Sinaceur et al., 2014; Sinaceur & Tiedens,
2006; Steinel et al., 2008; Van Kleef et al., 2004a, 2004b; Van Kleef, De Dreu,
Pietroni, et al., 2006; Van Kleef & De Dreu, 2010) it is assumed that conducting
experiment would be a sufficient method to prove the propositions.
Experiment
Emotion/Situation Situation A:
- High time
pressure
Situation B:
- Low time pressure
Sadness
Neutral
Following the example of Sinaceur (2014) the participants will receive negotiation task
and will have 25 minutes for preparation. The negotiation itself will continue 25
minutes and after the participants will fill in questionnaire. Then the questions would
be 7 position Likert scales which will be analyzed in order to prove the four
propositions.
The students will be either rewarded with credits or will not rewarded for participating.
Time needed: 60 minutes per dyad meaning 3600 minutes in total for 1 experiment.
However, while negotiation is in progress then other dyad will be preparing which
decreases to 1860 minutes. If there are 2 rooms for conducting the negotiation and 2
rooms for preparing then the time will be reduced reaching 930 minutes which is
almost two working days (1 working day is 480 minutes).
The expresser of sadness apart from the negotiation task (deal information, pay off
chart) will receive information about how to behave in order to express sadness (facial
expressions, vocal differences, movements, these will be explained in the emotion
part?).
The other participant (the perceiver) apart from receiving the general information for
the negotiation task he will be given information that he has to finish the deal as fast
as he can which will increase the time pressure. Moreover, it could be manipulated via
the payoff chart.
Sadness under time pressure 32
Both of the participants will be asked to maximize the gain value according to the
payoff chart.
7 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Literature review
a. Negotiation fundamentals
b. Emotion fundamental
c. Emotions in negotiations
3. Propositions
4. Methodology
a. Experiment 1
i. Design
ii. Manipulation
iii. Results
5. General discussion
6. Managerial and Theoretical implications
7. Limitations and future research
8. Conclusion
9. Bibliography
Sadness under time pressure 33
8 TIME SCHEDULE
Activity 09.14 10.14 11.14 12.14 01.15 02.15 03.15 04.15 05.15
Choosing a topic X
Writing Exposé X
Reading literature X X X
Writing chapter:
Negotiations
fundamentals
X X
Writing chapter:
Emotions
Fundamentals
X X
Writing chapter:
Emotions in
Negotiations
X X
Experiment(s)
development
X
Experiment(s)
conduction
X X
Analyzing the results
of the experiment(s)
X X X
Writing chapter:
Methodology
X
Writing chapter:
General discussion
X X
Writing chapter:
Managerial
implications
X X
Writing chapter:
Limitations and
future research
X X
Writing chapter:
Conclusions
X X
Preparing the final
presentation
X X
Important dates:
15.12.2014 – First draft of the intermediate presentation, 28.01.2015 – Intermediate
Presentation, 30.05.2014 – Final Presentation
Sadness under time pressure 34
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