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Solutions
Chapter 13Properties of Solutions
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Solutions
• Solutions are _______________ mixtures of two or more pure substances.
• In a solution, the _______________ is dispersed uniformly throughout the _______________.
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Solutions
The intermolecular forces between solute and solvent particles must be strong enough to compete with those between solute particles and those between solvent particles.
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How Does a Solution Form?
As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute particles apart and surrounds, or _______________, them.
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How Does a Solution Form
If an ionic salt is soluble in water, it is because the ion-dipole interactions are strong enough to overcome the _______________of the salt crystal.
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Energy Changes in Solution
• Simply put, three processes affect the energetics of the process:_______________ of
solute particlesSeparation of
_______________ particles
New _______________ between solute and solvent
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Energy Changes in Solution
The enthalpy change of the overall process depends on H for each of these steps.
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Solutions
Why Do Endothermic Processes Occur?
Things do not tend to occur _______________ (i.e., without outside intervention) unless the energy of the system is _______________.
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Why Do Endothermic Processes Occur?
Yet we know that in some processes, like the dissolution of NH4NO3 in water, heat is _______________, not released.
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Enthalpy Is Only Part of the Picture
The reason is that increasing the _______________or randomness (known as _______________) of a system tends to lower the _______________ of the system.
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Enthalpy Is Only Part of the Picture
So even though enthalpy may increase, the overall energy of the system can still decrease if the system becomes more _______________.
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Types of Solutions
• _______________Solvent holds as much
solute as is possible at that temperature.
Dissolved _______________ is in dynamic equilibrium with solid solute particles.
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Types of Solutions
• _______________Less than the
maximum amount of solute for that temperature is dissolved in the _______________.
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Types of Solutions
• _______________Solvent holds more solute than is normally
possible at that temperature.These solutions are _______________;
crystallization can usually be stimulated by adding a “seed crystal” or scratching the side of the flask.
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Factors Affecting Solubility
• Chemists use the axiom “like dissolves like”:_______________
substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents.
_______________substances tend to dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
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Factors Affecting Solubility
The more similar the _______________ attractions, the more likely one substance is to be soluble in another.
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Factors Affecting Solubility
Glucose (which has hydrogen bonding) is very soluble in water, while cyclohexane (which only has dispersion forces) is not.
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Factors Affecting Solubility
• Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar compounds (like fats).
• Vitamin C is soluble in water.
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Gases in Solution
• In general, the solubility of gases in water _______________ with _______________ mass.
• Larger molecules have stronger dispersion forces.
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Gases in Solution
• The solubility of liquids and solids does not change appreciably with _______________.
• The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to its _______________.
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Temperature
Generally, the solubility of solid solutes in liquid solvents _______________ with increasing temperature.
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Temperature
• The opposite is true of gases:Carbonated soft
drinks are more “bubbly” if stored in the refrigerator.
Warm lakes have less O2 dissolved in them than cool lakes.
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Ways of Expressing
Concentrations of Solutions
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Mass Percentage
Mass % of A =mass of A in solutiontotal mass of solution
100
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moles of Atotal moles in solution
XA =
Mole Fraction (X)
• In some applications, one needs the mole fraction of _______________, not solute—make sure you find the quantity you need!
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mol of soluteL of solution
M =
Molarity (M)
• You will recall this concentration measure from Chapter 4.
• Because volume is temperature dependent, molarity can change with temperature.
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mol of solutekg of solvent
m =
Molality (m)
Because both moles and mass do not change with _______________, molality (unlike molarity) is _______________ temperature dependent.
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Changing Molarity to Molality
If we know the density of the solution, we can calculate the molality from the molarity, and vice versa.
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Colligative Properties
• Changes in _______________ properties depend only on the number of _______________ particles present, not on the _______________ of the solute particles.
• Among colligative properties areVapor pressure lowering Boiling point elevationMelting point depression
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Vapor Pressure
Because of solute-solvent intermolecular attraction, higher concentrations of _______________ solutes make it harder for solvent to escape to the vapor phase.
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Vapor Pressure
Therefore, the vapor pressure of a solution is _______________than that of the pure solvent.
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Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
_______________ solute-solvent interactions also cause solutions to have _______________ boiling points and _______________ freezing points than the pure solvent.
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Boiling Point ElevationThe change in boiling point is proportional to the molality of the solution:
Tb = Kb m
where Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant, a property of the solvent.Tb is added to the normal
boiling point of the solvent.
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Freezing Point Depression• The change in freezing
point can be found similarly:
Tf = Kf m
• Here Kf is the molal freezing point depression constant of the solvent.
Tf is subtracted from the normal freezing point of the solvent.
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Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
Note that in both equations, T does not depend on what the solute is, but only on how many particles are dissolved.
Tb = Kb m
Tf = Kf m
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Colligative Properties of Electrolytes
Since these properties depend on the number of particles dissolved, solutions of _______________ (which dissociate in solution) should show greater changes than those of nonelectrolytes.
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Colligative Properties of Electrolytes
However, a 1 M solution of NaCl does not show twice the change in freezing point that a 1 M solution of methanol does.
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van’t Hoff Factor
One mole of NaCl in water does not really give rise to two moles of ions.
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van’t Hoff Factor
Some Na+ and Cl− reassociate for a short time, so the true concentration of particles is somewhat less than two times the concentration of NaCl.
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The van’t Hoff Factor
• Reassociation is more likely at higher _______________.
• Therefore, the number of particles present is _______________ dependent.
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The van’t Hoff Factor
We modify the previous equations by multiplying by the van’t Hoff factor, i
Tf = Kf m i
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Colloids:
Suspensions of _______________ larger than individual ions or molecules, but too _______________to be settled out by gravity.