Download - Semiautomatic
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1 SEMIAUTOMATIC
SEMI AUTO MATIC
AUCKLAND URBANISATION
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AN ALTERNATIVE AUCKLAND PLAN
MATTHEW BRADBURY DUSHKO BOGUNOVICH
RESILIENT SPRAWL
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Publishing details
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ISBN etc
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Assistance and contribution from the following people is
gratefully acknowledged by the authors:
Heather Docherty
Grace Lunberry
Athena Sommerfield
Nikolay Popov
Unitec Bachelor of Landscape Architecture Year 3 (2012)
Daisy Tang (photos)
...
...
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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CONTENTS
01. Context
02. Contemporary research
03. Proposition
04. Potential Periurban Growth Areas East of Auckland
05. Landscape metrics
06. Growth strategies
07. Typology + Morphology
08. Green Infrastructure details
09. Reflection
10. Conclusion
11. References
12. Bibliography
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01. CONTEXT
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The world population continues to expand and this means the growth of all major
world cities. The world faces a conundrum of how best to include all these new people
within their cities while reducing the consumption of increasingly sparse commodities.
The United Nations has forecasted a population growth of 2 billion between 2011
and 2041, and that approximately 2/3rds of the world’s population will live in urban
environments (Auckland Plan). This is an overwhelming number and means cities will
be competing against each other to develop new technology, improve their economies
and create higher quality living.
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Global planning will be in a radical state of change between now and 2040 due to
climate change and population expansion. Not only is the population growing it is
also aging. This means that healthcare systems, transport, housing etc. will be have
to be tailored to manage this change and adjusted to the meet the needs of a more
elderly demographic. The expansion may also mean the creation of mega cities with
populations of up to 80million people in one city. These are likely to be in developing
nations such as China and India, which may displace the world’s 30 largest economies
such as San Francisco, Sydney, and Toronto. By 2040 the effects of climate change
will be obvious with the increasing frequency of extreme weather events and the
likely change of existing climate patterns. This may cause the shifting of populations
from one location to another for safety and comfort. New Zealand is less likely to be
effected by these patterns so may be encouraged to take refugees and other shifting
populations. Sustainable locations will become more and more attractive to people
and have an increasing importance in the global economy.
Cities will compete to attract skilled workers by being liveable; “Liveable cities need a
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competitive business climate and tax levels, a business-friendly culture, and excellent
connectivity. To be recognised as innovation centres, cities will need to support
education in the sciences and engineering; support the creation of leading research
centres; foster closer links between those research centres and business; and foster
collaboration between complementary sectors to encourage the development of new
products and solutions to pressing issues.” (Auckland Plan, pg.23, 2011)
Cities consume three quarters of all planetary resources and generate more than
three quarters of all waste. And they are growing -- more than half of humanity is
already urban. In about a decade we will have about four billion people in urban areas,
and in two decades, about five. Ensuring that these staggering numbers of people
have such basics as food, water, energy, shelter and sanitation is the most daunting
task that humanity has faced. And the task will only get harder as the affects climate
change become more obvious and a peak oil crisis looms. Auckland is not immune to
these challenges.
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FIGURE 1.SUSTAINABLE SPRAWL
Continuing the historic coastal linear urban growth pattern of auckland
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Auckland is New Zealand’s largest city, home to an estimated 1.5million people
and one of the main commercial centres. This is one third of the entire country’s
population. Auckland is economically unmatched by other New Zealand centres and
is a hub of transport infrastructure with airports, ports, freight stations making
Auckland a gateway to the rest of this trade dependent nation. Because of Auckland’s
importance to the economy and trade, the wellbeing of the entire country is closely
intertwined with its success or failure.
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FIGURE 2.STUDY AREA: EAST AUCKLAND
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Situated outside the edge of the Metropolitan Urban Limit (MUL), the growth study area is focussed within three catchments: Maraetai, Whitford and Wairoa (Clevedon).
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68% of international visitor arrivals and
76% of business arrivals to New Zealand come through Auckland Airport.
47% of permanent and long-term arrivals in New Zealand have settled in Auckland.
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68% of international visitor arrivals and
76% of business arrivals to New Zealand come through Auckland Airport.
47% of permanent and long-term arrivals in New Zealand have settled in Auckland.
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Auckland’s unique character has been primarily shaped by its history and geography.
To this day, Auckland maintains its feel as a collection of villages joined together
rather than just one big metropolis. The extensive waterways permeating the region
help provide a lovely temperate climate and contribute to the wide diversity of the flora
and fauna. This expansive city is set in an incredible natural setting rare amongst
cities and is also very culturally diverse, giving Aucklanders a unique setting to live in.
This prominent metropolis is a typical post-industrial city. Valued as a lifestyle
destination, surrounded by three harbours, and processing a benign climate it is at the
same time guilty of many of the sins of the western new world city. Despite its setting,
it is a sprawling car based suburban city where the citizens connect to a city of malls,
big box retail, and office park through a pervasive motorway infrastructure.
Until recently, Auckland was divided into seven different councils; these have been
joined into one overarching council to create the new ‘super city’. This new governing
structure has led to the recent release of ‘The Auckland Plan’, a draft spatial plan to
direct the development of Auckland and manage its growth from now until 2040. This
is primarily as a response to the predicted population expansion for the region. The
aim is for Auckland to become ‘the world’s most liveable city’ while accommodating a
new estimated population of 2.5million by 2041. The plan proposes a rough 60/40 split
of development, 60% within the existing cities boundaries and 40% outside.
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The Auckland Plan aims to help Auckland achieve the goal of becoming the world’s
most liveable city. This means a place that residents are proud of and want to stay in
or return to and others want to visit, move to or invest in. A beautiful and loved city that
is culturally rich and creative.
Creating the world’s most liveable city would attract and retain the skilled people
needed for a strong economy. A good lifestyle isn’t enough to meet this goal, there
also needs to be a more resilient and sustainable economy. A green Auckland with an
emphasis on fairness, safety, and health would encourage prosperity and opportunity
for all Aucklanders.
The council spatial plan aims to create a ‘quality compact city’ by increasing density
within new boundaries (metropolitan urban limits) and limiting development
growth outside of these boundaries with the exception of a few selected locations
(Warksworth and Pukekohe). High quality design and the preservation of rural land
are key components to this plan. The compact city model proposed is loosely based
on New Urbanist thinking and a number of overseas case studies, and suggests that
increasing density is the solution to creating a sustainable liveable city. Ideally the
compact city model is supposed to limit and contain the much-maligned urban sprawl
that is seen to be taking over Auckland. The increased density should provide a more
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efficient use of public transport and is thought to reduce energy consumption, create
a better social mix and a tighter community (Frey, 1999). The council also hopes that
the denser city will:
GENERATE GREATER PRODUCTIVITY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
MAKE BETTER USE OF THE EXISTING INFRASTRUCTURE
MAINTAIN RURAL CHARACTER AND PRODUCTIVITY
REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
CREATE GREATER SOCIAL AND CULTURAL VITALITY
The new Auckland plan uses several techniques to concentrate urban growth within a
defined geographical limit to encourage the compact city; encouragement of high-
density apartments and arbitrary development lines – RUB or Rural-Urban Boundary
at the edge of city.
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There are several principles that are essential to the council’s compact quality
approach:
QUALITY FIRST
GENERATIONAL CHANGE AND TRANSITION TO A QUALITY COMPACT FORM
GROWTH PRIMARILY WITHIN EXISTING URBAN AREAS
A RURAL-URBAN BOUNDARY AND STAGED RELEASE OF GREENFIELDS SITES
DECADE-BY-DECADE HOUSING SUPPLY
The details of these principles and how they will affect Auckland can be seen in the
official ‘Auckland Plan’.
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Much of the Auckland region is rural and it is proposed to continue to keep these
areas rural and productive with limited development. In fact, approximately 70% of
Auckland’s landmass is currently rural. Much importance is placed on rural land in
Auckland, there needs to be a sustainable balance between production, protection
and all activities associated with rural character.
Auckland’s urban environment is desired to become just as beautiful as the city’s
natural setting. This is the aim of the quality compact urban plan suggested.
Accessibility and aesthetics are an important part of this aim both in existing urban
areas and in greenfield sites.
This book outlines a possible alternative growth strategy for Auckland to the official
‘compact city’ vision. This proposition recognizes that the link between density and
sustainability is much weaker than commonly understood, and that the topology
and technology of urban infrastructure is bound to profoundly change over the next
couple of decades. We argue that the next million inhabitants of Auckland should be
allocated, roughly evenly, to four main zones of the city-region – urban, suburban,
peri-urban and ex-urban.
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This proposition stems from the recognition that, in the face of climate change and
expected resources shortages in the not too distant future, Auckland has neither time
nor money to rapidly or radically transform its predominantly suburban urban form.
In addition, a high-density city model carries significant risk for a city founded on a
very precarious natural site. We need an urban technological revolution. It will consist
of a profound change in the design of urban technical systems. They will have to be
clean, green, small, smart and decentralised. Think of the new city as a giant farm - a
sprawling artificial landscape that harvests clean energy, food, rainwater and treats
and recycles its waste locally.
We believe that for Auckland to retain its status as one of the most liveable cities in the
world, it has to exploit precisely its low density, because that factor makes its famous
lifestyle possible.
Rather than trying to become a sustainable, compact city, New Zealand’s largest
metropolis should strive to become a super-liveable, resilient urban region. A
low-density city that settles around its extraordinary landscape. We see that the
implication of this idea has relevance to not only Auckland but too many other so-
called sprawl cities around the world.
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02. CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH
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Urban planning is a very relevant subject in today’s world of major urban growth. As a
result there has been a lot or research and literature on planning looking at different
models of development and how they can be applied to cities across the globe.
Although many authors have written about city planning with focus on increased
densities and compact cities there is also a large amount of literature about new
approaches to the design of the future urban fabric. Here is a brief summary of some
of contemporary literature addressing the need for new planning techniques.
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For many the focus is on the best way to create a sustainable city through a wide
variety of techniques and approaches. Setting aside and conserving productive
land is one way suggested to achieve the goal of sustainability. This is not a high
density approach as it involves allowing plenty of green space to permeate the urban
environment and if land is of productive value it’s kept from being developed. This
means looking at landscape character and features to influence the form the city
takes. The compactness of the city is not necessarily what makes it sustainable, it
often is features such as accessibility, connectivity and proximity rather than overall
form and shape. If sprawl is treated in a different manner it may not be as detrimental
as many think.
The modern economy and increasingly mobile infrastructure also have an effect on
planning. No longer do people always have to commute and meet face to face. People
can afford to live away from their place of work and choose the lifestyle they want.
The market and new technological advances have led to an increasingly decentralised
urban environment. This decentralisation doesn’t have to be unsustainable if
connectivity, interactions, and infrastructure are carefully considered and planned for.
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It could actually be more sustainable than the traditional compact city model. Maybe
there should no longer be a definitive boundary between urban and rural as each
takes on roles of the other and the city becomes more decentralised? The two can
interact and relate to each other creating a harmonious unity and fostering increased
diversity. This would increase sustainability.
It’s obvious that there is more than one way to increase a city’s sustainability
depending on its region, economy, and population. Different approaches to urban
planning should be utilised depending on each individual urban centre.
Many contemporary researchers have written about the sustainable and future
development and planning of cities. Some propose the compact city model based off
successful Old World cities but many others are suggesting new ways of dealing with
city growth.
The desire to increase sustainability and liveability is a strong theme through several
authors’ works. This ranges from the importance of open space (conservation) to how
sustainability and form relate to prepare for future crisis.
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Arendt is the author of a number of articles dealing with city growth and urban
planning. In all his work Arendt suggests that a key part of new urban planning and
development is the creation and preservation of open space networks. Arendt argues
that current practices for land development are developing all land available without
any green vision or real thought for the landscapes that they are building over. He
maintains that every landscape is unique right down to the neighbourhood level and
full of biodiversity that is lost when the homogenous suburban landscape is applied.
He argues that this does not need be the case as we expand our cities and offers
a different solution to developing the landscape. “The special places that give our
rural and semi-rural communities their distinctive character need not all be cleared,
graded, and paved over just because they contain flat, dry, buildable land, although
that has been the fate of countless similar natural areas in virtually all suburbs built
up to this time.” (Pg xviii, Arendt, 1994)
His suggested solution is to develop in a density neutral fashion. By density neutral
he means “that the overall number of dwellings allowed is the same as would
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be permitted in a conventional layout. Dwellings not constructed on buildable
conservation land are erected in other more appropriate locations on the site.” (Pg 6,
Arendt, 1996). This results in conservation subdivision design. His ideas are designed
to complement the new urbanist approach of compact development while suggesting
that their designs are better suited to transport corridors and metropolitan nodes. He
argues that homes designed in the conservation subdivision design offer the economic
advantages of smoother review, lower costs, marketing and sales advantages, faster
appreciation and reduced demand for new public parkland.
Arendt believes that conservation subdivision design should preserve and create
green open space networks. He argues that overall density can be maintained
in conjunction with land conservation. He continues that open space protection
is the organising principle in development and that open space becomes a green
network across a region. He argues 50% of developable land should be put aside for
conservation. Arendt lists ecological, social and economic benefits to conservation
design.
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Yaro argues that small towns are often ill-equipped to deal with a rapid, unplanned
growth and town character, open space, natural resources, public services, and
infrastructure, and stock of affordable housing are jeopardised. “…most towns are
governed by zoning by-laws that often unwittingly prescribe development patterns
that are inappropriate for the their rural areas. Suburban sprawl is spawned by
large lot development requirements and by highway corridors zoned for unlimited
commercial development – precisely the pattern mandated by many town by-laws.”
(Pg7, Yaro et. Al., 1989).
Yaro offers the solution of “by-law amendments which would require all new
developments proposed on open fields or pastures to be laid out so that no more than
50 percent of the farmland is consumed by streets and lots. Lots would be reduced
in size by (typically) 50 percent, and the resultant open space would be permanently
protected by conservation restrictions for future agriculture use. Buildings would
either be located in a woodland fringe at the edge the fields, or screened from the
fields by a newly planted shelterbelt of trees.” (Pg 13-14. Yaro et. Al., 1989).
“Zoning, which regulates land-use location and density, does not address the visually
important design issues which have such a significant impact upon our townscapes.
Exerting some positive influence over the design of new developments is often
essential if a town’s image is to be protected and reinforced.” (Pg 127, Yaro et. Al.,
1989).
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Frey questions what form and structure would make the city more sustainable. He
notes that “the city we have – with dense cores accommodating much of the city’s
workplaces, retail outlets, commerce, services and amenities; sprawling and low
density, single-use suburbs; a city structure which by default generates the need
to travel and, owing to overall low population densities, car dependency and, as the
result of the burning of fossil fuel, massive pollution; unattractive public transport
because of low densities and underfunding; congested roads as a result of car
dependency; and high energy consumption – is in the long term not sustainable owing
to the destructive impact on the regional and global environment .” Pg 23.
He identifies the compact city concept as the leading practice in sustainable city
design and lays out arguments for and against it.
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For:
CONTAINMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE
REJUVENATION OF URBAN AREAS
HIGHER DENSITIES
CONSERVATION OF COUNTRYSIDE
AFFORDABLE PUBLIC TRANSPORT
REDUCED VEHICLE VOLUMES AND POLLUTION CONGESTION
REDUCTION
REDUCED TRAVEL DISTANCES
VITALITY OF MIXED USES
POTENTIAL OF SOCIAL MIX
CONCENTRATION OF LOCAL ACTIVITIES
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Against:
CONTRADICTS MARKET FORCES AND DESIRES TO
LIVE IN LOW DENSITY.
LESS GREEN SPACE RESULTING IN REDUCTION IN ENVIRONMENTAL
QUALITY.
COMPACT CITY WILL CAUSE CONGESTION, INCREASE IN
POLLUTION, LOSS OF AMENITY SPACE, LOSS OF PRIVACY.
SOCIAL SEGREGATION WILL OCCUR AS PRICES RISE IN CITY CENTRE
AND ADVANTAGED OUTER SUBURBS.
WILL FAIL TO RESPOND TO DEMAND FOR HOUSING IN TIME FRAMES
NEEDED.
NEEDS LARGE FINANCIAL INCENTIVES AND HIGH DEGREE OF
SOCIAL CONTROL WHICH ARE ECONOMICALLY AND POLITICALLY
UNREASONABLE.
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He concludes there is no solid evidence that the compact city model is more
sustainable. He argues that density and urban containment become relative when
considered against wider criteria and that sustainability now needs to consider the
countryside as well as the city. Frey concludes that the micro structure (accessibility,
proximity and functional mix) of city form appears to be more important than macro
structure (type of city form). He sums up that sustainable regions may implement
combinations of different city models. “…it has become clear that cities and
conurbations can have a variety of different macro-structures as long as they have the
appropriate micro-structure of nodes and linkages that is responsible for access to
provisions and services and mobility.” (Pg 69, Frey, 1999).
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Jenks and Jones seek to provide an answer the question “to what extent and in what
ways does urban form contribute to sustainability.” (Pg12, Jenks & Jones, 2010). They
argue that while much research has been done on the urban form of cities and what
forms are likely to affect sustainability much of this has been focused on the widely
adopted concept of the compact city and sprawl reduction. They question whether this
is the most sustainable type of urban form, as research points multiple types of urban
form being sustainable. Included in their research are others perspectives.
Fuller et al. explores the relationship that types of urban form have on the
environmental structure and performance of environmental processes. They
use density as a key measure of urban form and conclude that there is a strong
correlation between increased density and reduction in total green space coverage
and connectivity of vegetated patches. They argue that this affects the ability of
ecosystem services, biodiversity as well as social factors such as recreation,
experiences with nature and quality of life.
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Bramley et al. qualify that “urban forms cannot be considered sustainable in the
full sense if they are not acceptable to people as places to live, work and interact.”
(Pg 105, Jenks & Jones, 2010). Bramley et al. conclude that for the majority of social
sustainability indicators it is the lower density urban form that rate the highest. They
add some aspects favour higher density development (access to services) while
medium density rates highest for interaction. Jones et al. add that the housing market
prefers low density housing, and that to change this to higher density would require
significant change to the current market forces.
Irvine et al. recognise the importance of urban green space and the positive effect of
human contact with nature. They suggest that a multitude of interactions with green
space be created based on local differences. They also note that public involvement
through the private urban garden be used to boost biodiversity resulting in landscape
wide effects.
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Gleeson takes the point that energy insecurity and climate change are serious threats
to our way of life. He argues that suburbs are not the main source of environmental
degradation but they are the most vulnerable to the effects of the coming crisis such
as oil default and climate change problems.
Gleeson acknowledges the compact city movement as the leading action for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and argues that the compact city idea cannot and will not
reduce emissions in the timeframe that is needed.He continues that a more important
role for planning is emerging in adapting to climates and landscapes that have been
modified by climate shifts. He clarifies that he is not an advocate of business-as-usual
urban growth approaches.
Gleeson comments on the arguments against the low density suburb, summarising
that they are viewed as the “source and worst reflection of the sustainability crisis.”
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(Pg 106, Gleeson, 2010). He argues that while sprawl is defined as “unplanned low
density urban development” (Pg 106, Gleeson, 2010) it is often used in describing all of
suburbia. He continues that the critique by green standards has led to the premature
conclusion that suburbia is wasteful and polluting, focusing on the lifestyles of the
inhabitants rather than the urban dwellings that they reside in.
Gleeson believes that global warming and oil vulnerability cannot be solved by
compact urban form nor ignored, he sees urban adaption and climate change
resilience as the most important tasks for planning. He argues that campaign against
suburbia is distracting from the possibility that the best suited to climate change
adaptation may actually be the suburban form.
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The modern economy and increasingly mobile infrastructure have to be taken into
account in regards to the modern city’s development according to many experts.
Blais argues that sprawl is considered an undesired and inefficient urban form
compared with a compact city, and identifies several planning and urban design
movements or initiatives that have been put forward over the last couple of decades to
combat this. These are growth management, smart growth and new urbanism. Blais
makes the argument that market forces have led to sprawl and that while the problem
has been attempted to be solved with regulatory and design approaches these are
not equipped to deal with the main causes of the issue. She concludes the desired
outcome is to have planning and pricing work together as a unified approach to sprawl
and when this is achieved the market will be more united with the compact city urban
form.
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Hall and Pain note that a new urban form is emerging in the world classified as
the “Polycentric mega-city region.” (Pg 3,Hall & Pain eds, 2006). They attribute the
emergence of this condition to decentralization and believe that cities are becoming
more polycentric over time. They attribute this to the globalisation of the world’s
economy and a shift from manufacturing and goods-handling to service economies.
They reason that because face-to-face meetings require agglomeration there is
a process of concentrated deconcentration . “they disperse over the scale of wide
city region, but simultaneously reconcentrate at particular nodes within it, limited
only by time distance constraints. Traditional central city locations still matter, but
increasingly they are not the sole clustering points for economic activity; they form
merely a part of a wider spatial division of labour within the urban area, with other
significant clusterings.” (Pg 11 Hall & Pain eds, 2006). They argue this translates to
the polycentric urban structure seen many large cities today. Hall and Pain note the
implications of polycentricity on sustainability and economic success of the urban
form. They note that it can be viewed to increase development in large towns but that
it can lead to increased cross commuting which is unsustainable. They stress that
improving the regions interactions between the centres is the most effective way of
achieving the “metropolitan potential” (pg 203, Hall & Pain eds, 2006).
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Varnelis uses the city of Los Angeles to describe the infrastructural city by stating
that by no means should the city be there except for the vast modern infrastructural
systems that support it. He sees Los Angeles “as a local manifestation of global
conditions.” (Pg 15, Varnelis, 2008). Varnelis argues cities today are reliant on layers
of infrastructure, water, power, telecommunications and roading that connect the city
to the rest of the world. He points out that this also has the consequence of making
them susceptible to disruption from external forces. He believes that the unseen
infrastructure of wires and cables that make up the invisible city are becoming ever
more dominant in determining spatial form.
Sherman argues that cities today develop too fast for architects and planners efforts
to structure them. “political and economic circumstances change so rapidly that by
the time a plan is realized, it is often obsolete; a mere election or market downturn
can radically alter the assumptions and objectives of a project or master plan.” (Pg
180, Varnelis, 2008).. He continues that if designers ignore the conditions that their
projects will be subject to, and focus on expressing the way that things currently work
or designing so many contingencies the result is that none of them work well.
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Bruegmann argues that the main contributor to sprawl is a rising quality of life and
wealth that give a greater percentage of the population the ability to make choices
that were historically only available to the wealthy. He concludes that with this choice
more people have sought out the comforts of the suburban house. He believes that
the word sprawl is ill-defined, shifting in definition between one era and the next. He
defines it “as low density, scattered, urban development without systematic large-
scale or regional public land-use planning.” (Pg 18, Bruegmann, 2005). Bruegmann
talks about The Perverse Consequences of Regulation that the commonly used
urban growth boundary can create. He uses the example of the boundary depressing
property values of individuals whose land falls outside the boundary while at the same
time creating benefits for those whose property is well located within the boundary.
This affects the economic climate of a city. A classic quote from Bruegmann is “The
only thing that citizens dislike more than sprawl at the edge is high density near
themselves.” (pg. 208, Bruegmann, 2005).
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Another important and common discussion is the importance and issues arising from
the new urban and rural relationship.
Champion and Hugo argue that there is a need to reconceptualise the way that we
interpret settlements and create new classifications other than the categorisation of
urban or rural at present. “There is no longer any clear dividing line between town
and countryside for individual settlements or their inhabitants: indeed, many people
reside in one but work in the other.” (Pg 3, Champion & Hugo, 2004). They take the
perspective that the lifestyles of the population are an indicator in defining a place
as urban or rural and find that “the outward, suburban, spread of more diverse
population groups and economic activities has created the need for new settlement
categories pertaining to new activity spaces and local labour market areas.” (Pg 86,
Champion & Hugo, 2004).
They argue that with telecommunications, information technology and transport
development urban functions have begun to relocate to rural areas. They argue that
it is very difficult to draw a line to define each category when modern ways of living
mean that the countryside exhibits many characteristics of the city now. They add
that the relationship between the suburb and city has also changed as suburbs are
becoming far more heterogeneous as suburban populations have taken on more of
an urban character. This is due to the decentralisation of city’s economic markets and
populations.
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Sieverts uses the term Zwischenstadt to describe the place that contemporary cities
occupy between the historical old city type and the open countryside. This new city is
an urbanised landscape or landscaped city, where the lines between country and city
have blurred. He points out that only the city cores now resemble the old cities but
the vast majority now is the Zwischenstadt. Because of the new urban dynamics and
form, Sieverts argues that the old city model is obsolete and cannot be re-achieved in
this new age.
He argues the cities we see today have moved away from the traditional city structure
as the expansion of the amenities in private premises have resulted in a loss in urban-
ness as they satisfy many activities previously sought out in the public realm. He
continues that cities are no longer organised in a hierarchical tree structure instead
now resemble a network with dispersed nodes. Sievert notes that the conditions
that made the 19th century old city density model functional have changed and that
the previous success of this urban condition is now somewhat misleading. He notes
that ecology has become the overriding principle of city development, as sustainable
city development is now the objective. Sieverts outlines that only under the right
circumstances can the compact city model now be successful. Despite the positives
that it offers, the social, commercial, cultural and political parameters have changed
making this model very difficult to reproduce in today’s cities.
He argues of a new decentralised cultural landscape which fosters diversity in
which the production of food, recreation and ecological balance forms a new unity
between built up and open spaces. He predicts that in the future the largest driver of
commercial development will become cultural, ecological and landscape qualities as
the standard of infrastructure is uniform across a city.
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03. PROPOSITION
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From the research we have done and the observations we’ve made we believe that
the compact city model is not appropriate for the Auckland region and will prove
ineffective and unachievable in the time frame proposed. Unfortunately we don’t see
how it can change Auckland into “the world’s most liveable city” in the time frame
proposed and without great cost. As can be seen in contemporary urban planning
research there are other options available to us that may suit the topography and form
better and create a more resilient city.
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There are 6 main reasons we do not believe the compact city model suited for
Auckland:
THE CAR HAS ALREADY SHAPED AUCKLAND’S GROWTH.
THE GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF AUCKLAND POSES PROBLEMS FOR CREATING A HIGH DENSITY CITY. THE ISTHMUS CONSTRAINS GROWTH PATTERNS WITH ITS MANY ESTUARIES, HILLS, BASINS AND VOLCANIC CONES.
MODERN TECHNOLOGY (IT/ET) INDICATES INCREASED DECENTRALISATION AND MOBILITY.
PERSONAL AUTOMOTIVE TRANSPORT WILL BECOME MORE EXPENSIVE WITH THE EXPECTED PEAK OIL CRISIS, BUT THE IMPACT WILL BE MODERATED BY TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY SUCH AS FUEL EFFICIENCY GAINS, AND ENERGY SOURCE SUBSTITUTIONS.
THERE IS PLENTY OF EVIDENCE THAT THERE IS MORE TO SUSTAINABILITY THAN CARS, TRAVEL DISTANCES AND DENSITY. BUILDINGS ARE A PRIMARY CULPRIT IN GHG EMISSIONS AND DIRTY ENERGY CONSUMPTION.
A NEW FOCUS ON RESILIENCE (INSTEAD OF SUSTAINABILITY, UNDERSTOOD AS MITIGATION) TELLS US THAT LOW DENSITY URBAN DEVELOPMENT IS LESS RISKY. ON MANY ACCOUNTS HIGH DENSITY CITIES ARE DANGEROUSLY DEPENDENT ON OUTSIDE RESOURCES AND IN THE CASE OF A NATURAL DISASTER MORE DAMAGE COULD BE DONE WITH THE CONDENSATION OF PEOPLE AND SERVICES.
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Liveability and lifestyle is an important factor if Auckland is indeed to become one of
the best cities in the world to live. Enabling a close connection to its extraordinary
natural landscape is more likely to attract the type of people we are told we must
draw to make Auckland a successful city. A unique city rather than attempting to
imitate the dense urban environments of the Old World.
Our alternative development strategy sees landscape as the new infrastructure and
is based on a close study of the recent history of Auckland’s development, which
is a low-rise sprawling city along the north-south motorway system; with a strong
acknowledgement of the importance of the natural water landscapes that permeate
Auckland. We have also looked at the global economic and environmental picture
and have concluded that cities play a critical role in the global battle for sustainable
development. A new green urban economy seems inevitable, and is not only applicable
for Auckland but may actually be easier to achieve in Auckland than in many other
cities.
Why is there such opposition to low-density cities? Critics believe that low density
equals urban sprawl. However, with strict protections in place for: areas of
exceptionally fertile soil; vital watershed drainage; sensitive and/or rare habitat;
attractive landscape, and the adoption of clean and autonomous urban infrastructure,
low-density cities can assume a coherent urban form. Such a form includes many
nodes of denser development, with services such as public transport, and facilities for
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a vibrant social life. As our prior research into other experts demonstrated this in not
the first time an idea like this has been proposed as an alternative to the compact city
model.
Our research indicates that Auckland should grow along two different rationales. The
first is industrial and commercial growth in a linear pattern that follows the existing
State Highway One and the second is residential growth seeking natural landscape
and climate amenity patterns reflecting the many waterways and coastlines along the
isthmus. These can be considered the’ Linear City’ and the ‘Water City’ respectively.
The shape of the Auckland isthmus has guided Auckland’s pattern of growth into a
roughly cross shaped structure with a main north-south axis. The main linear axis is
focused around State Highway One and the historical railroad that connect Northland
to the rest of the North Island through Auckland. The linear shape and organisation
is almost inevitable due to the natural suitability of land for urban development. The
overall land suitable for urbanization is about 100km long and on average 15-25km in
width. Even if there should be a reason to fight against the natural linearity, policies
and instruments aimed at alternating the form would struggle to succeed. This is the
essence of the ‘Linear City’. The linear city is the backbone of the transport network
and metropolis. A series of urban nodes along the linear spine such as high-density,
mixed-use town centres would punctuate important points along the backbone. Each
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node would have a specific emphasis on a particular service or industry or amenity
that would make them unique and important in the greater scheme and complement
the other development nodes.
As previously discussed, waterways form an important part of Auckland’s isthmus
giving rise to the ‘Water City’ concept. Aucklanders have a special relationship to the
water due to its permeating presence. The beach acts as a social catalyst to bring
people together no matter their social position, similar to the square’s role in Europe.
The challenge for intensifying Auckland’s urban development by the water is to find
sites that are not going to attract the criticism of existing inhabitants, yet can provide
a water experience. The use of industrial/brownfield sites is one opportunity that has
not been fully explored for this purpose. Many obsolete industries are located on the
edges of both the Manukau and Waitemata harbours. Although they are often heavily
contaminated and in need of extensive remediation, their location next to the water
means they have high real estate value. We suggest that local government agencies
could take the lead in decontamination the foreshore and establishing treatment
facilities. Auckland would then gain remediated harbour, a new green public foreshore
and a zone of intensified accommodation for the increasing population—the ‘Water
City’. The water city symbolises the attraction of the beach and waterside living and
embodies the idea of a good life between nature and city.
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The resulting concept is a combination of the water and linear city, creating a
deliberate duality. The two ideas highlight the tension in contemporary life between
the rationality of work and the hedonism of free time and consumption. This new
combination heralds a new culture of urban living—the interaction of work and play
and economy and lifestyle. The linear city is the symbol and guarantee of Auckland’s
efficiency and the water city is the symbol and locus of Auckland’s status as the
‘world’s lifestyle capital’. The new urban sustainability paradigm sees horizontality
as a strength, not a weakness. It is about a regional approach, smarter use of low
density areas, and hybrid infrastructure. In other words, about creating a symbiotic
relationship between the city and its region; pursuing polycentric development with
multiple densities across the entire region; and an integrated mix of green, blue and
grey infrastructure.
Most of the global urban landscape in the 21st century will be suburban and peri-
urban. However this is not the parasitic suburbia of the 20th century, completely
dependent on urban infrastructure. This is a productive, low-density landscape,
consisting of partly autonomous properties, which are supported by a highly
decentralized, ‘smart’, ‘clean’ and literally green infrastructure.
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04. POTENTIAL PERIURBAN GROWTH AREAS EAST OF AUCKLAND: IN PRACTICE
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To explore how our proposed landscape approach could be applied to Auckland, 7
groups of BLA students from Unitec undertook a project to apply this methodology
to east Auckland (Maraetai, Whitford, Wairoa) to see what forms of development
could arise. They were to use a landscape ecological approach rather than a zoning
approach to create a structure plan and divide selected development sites spatially
based on the different landscape patterns and determine development types
accordingly.
The first stage was for each group to design a growth strategy (structure plan) for an
area outside the city limits in south-east Auckland. Then in the second stage each
individual student took a selected site located within their initial group growth strategy
plan and further developed it into an urban design scheme. In the third stage students
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created detailed designs of green infrastructure included in their urban design
scheme. The overall focus of the studio was on low impact urban design, ‘liveability’
(high quality of life) and ecological performance.
There were 3 main outcome aims of this studio project using main landscape features,
elements, processes and patterns of the wider Auckland region.
Identify areas where innovative forms of settlement growth can be located and
implemented.
Illustrate and demonstrate landscape architectural analyses and design processes to
support informed spatial decision making.
Apply landscape ecological design principles to measure and enhance ecological
performance.
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The methodology that was used included undertaking a development suitability
analysis to identify any areas which should be retired. The criterion used included
slope, existing native vegetation, geotechnical stability, significant heritage and
cultural features, significant natural character features, riparian areas and
estuarine and coastal margins. The next step was to propose development types
for the non-retired land. The way in which the developable terrain was organised
was guided by logic’s for the area of study, and was based on a landscape analysis
that complemented the suitability analysis. The final strategy created was to guide
and regulate the development of chosen sites and clearly show constraints and
opportunities. Finally they identified where different development types could occur
according to landscape capabilities.
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05. LANDSCAPE METRICS
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Landscape metrics refers to a method that uses algorithms to quantify specific
characteristics of a landscape. This can be applied to both the spatial arrangement
and the composition of the land. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is used to
calculate the landscape metrics of a chosen area. This covers a wide variety of
information from land cover/land use, to soil types, to hydrological and vegetation
patterns in addition to many other landscape features. Individual layers of information
both spatial and compositional can be overlaid to create comprehensive mapping of a
region. This type of information is frequently used in landscape planning and ecology
to inform decisions and for research purposes.
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Landscape metrics were used in this project to create a development suitability
analysis and identify any areas not suitable for use. GIS data for the study area was
used to analyse landscape patterns and spatial relationships between a number of
factors. The analysis results differed from group to group depending on what layers
of information were used and how they were overlaid to create a specific landscape
pattern. Given access to the same landscape metric data, seven student groups came
up with varying growth strategies. The prioritisation of data, combined with density
objectives resulted in seven potential scenarios.
A number of examples of the resulting maps created through the use of landscape
metrics can be seen on the opposite page.
FIGURE 3. LANDSCAPE METRICS
GIS data for the study area was used to analyse
landscape patterns and spatial relationships between
a number of factors.
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Hydrology
0 2 4 6 8 101Kilometers
$
Legend
River Systems
Natural Drainage Catchments
100-year floodplain
Study Catchments
Maraetai
Wairoa
Whitford
Land Use Capability
0 2 4 6 8 101Kilometers
$
Legend
Study Catchments
LUC_1
0
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
Road Infrastructure
0 2 4 6 8 101Kilometers
$
Legend
Study Catchments
Maraetai
Wairoa
Whitford
Road hierachy (low-high)
1
2
3
4
5
6
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 88
06. GROWTH STRATEGIES
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Given access to the same landscape metric data, seven student groups came up with
varying growth strategies. The prioritisation of data, combined with density objectives
resulted in seven potential scenarios.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 90
FIGURE 4.SEVEN SCENARIOS
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91 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 92
PROJECT ONE
HIGH-DENSITY COASTAL CITY (GROUP RAEJ)
Embracing Vertical sprawl enables maximum density over a small footprint, ensuring valuable productive and amenity landscapes are used to their full potential; all centred around a planned ferry system.
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93 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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Embracing vertical sprawl to enable maximum density over a small footprint, to ensure valuable productive and amenity landscapes are used to their full potential. This will be centred on a planned ferry system.
This strategy is based on coastal, ecological and
public transport systems which can enhance and provide for the broad urban environment as wells as ecological enhancement of waterways and established existing vegetation. Zoning densities are integrated with ecology and coastal infrastructure.
As the metropolitan area of Auckland continues to grow we need to utilise a wider variety of public transport. Using case studies of Sydney and Vancouver we have created a viable and
enjoyable compact urban layout embracing many of Auckland’s natural features. This is one of the main reasons for concentrating on developing the Beachlands / Maraetai area. The aim is to provide similar recreational values to the Northshore in a southeast Auckland context while providing a viable alternative to living on the Northshore and commuting to East Tamaki, thus reducing peak flows North/South on Auckland’s SH1.
1. VERTICAL SPRAWL: FERRY INFRASTRUCTUREAND URBAN COAST
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95 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 96
PROJECT TWO
HIGH-DENSITY COASTAL CITY (GROUP RAEJ)
Compact quality. Our main focus is improving the quality of life in the new Beachlands/Maraitai development. Using Tauranga as an example for how a compact city looks and functions with a high quality of living we have analysed our site according to landscape conditions with the awareness that in the next 50 years another million people will be living in the Auckland area. The expectations of such a significant population increase directed our analysis to give us areas to preserve, develop and enhance.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 98
2. SOUTH EAST AUCKLAND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY—SLOPE RETIREMENT
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99 SEMIAUTOMATIC
A focus on compact quality aims to improve the quality of life in the new Beachlands/
Maraitai development. Site has been analysed with an emphasis on landscape condi-
tions and the awareness that within the next 50 years the population will increase by
approximately 1million in the Auckland region. The target is to preserve, develop and
enhance.
Analysis resulted in the selection of an area for the extension of the Auckland MUL.
The new boundary follows a series of ridgelines and roads to develop and protect
catchments inside and out of this new boundary, particularly the Clevedon Valley flood
plain. It was important to connect this new development with the existing Auckland
city.
The focus of the development is on the coastal settlements of Beachlands and Marae-
tai. This zone is defined by two main ridge lines that form a catchment and create a
clear geographical boundary. This zone makes up 1/5 of the total extended MUL area,
and development ideas in this section would be projected throughout the extended
zone. This is representational of the mixed use model, such as that employed in Tau-
ranga, which will be applied throughout the extended zone.
The final result of the analysis combines all of the important information and pro-
vided the basis for determining the areas of development and density. These zones
are shaped according to the relevant landscape elements and also the key ideas of
high quality of living and ecological performance and enhancement. The influence of
Tauranga helped to formulate a model for density zones and provided a framework for
forming a city with a high quality of life. This new type of development has the poten-
tial to help cities grow in a positive way with less impact on the landscape. This model
could help Auckland in maintaining its status as one of the most liveable cities in the
world.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 100
PROJECT THREE
LOW DENSITY SLOPES (GROUP ??)
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101 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 102
A focus on development in the foothills surrounding the Clevedon floodplain intends to
preserve the high quality soils and rural character within the floodplain. This concept
has been derived through a landscape ecological approach with a goal to define the
areas in need of revegetation.
This strategy investigates the possibilities of an alternative model of urban
development– horizontal urbanization outside the proposed Auckland urban limits.
The focus is on the ecological performance and ‘liveability’ (high quality of life) of
the proposed developments. This development strategy is channelled through a
framework of understanding landscape ecological systems.
The focus is on the Clevedon valley, located east of Papakura, in South-East Auckland.
After investigation it was discovered that the majority of the Clevedon valley is a
floodplain with highly productive soils and that the locale residents are want to keep
the regions rural character. A key aspect of this growth strategy is the preservation
of the floodplain as productive land for crops and pastoral use with no development.
Through the preservation of the natural floodplain, the rural character will also be
preserved.
Analysis of the site revealed that development was best suited to the foothills of
the Clevedon Valley where there the soils are not as productive and on appropriate
slopes with no important land cover. The slight variations in these characteristics of
the site and also the closeness to existing infrastructure and settlements dictated
the densities of development in the foothills. Because of the development in the
foothills, revegetation was considered due to the possible contamination of the water
running through the valleys in the foothills and down in to the floodplain due to the
development. Revegetation was also considered within the floodplain to filter runoff
that might negatively affect waterways in the valley.
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103 SEMIAUTOMATIC
3. AUCKLAND GROWTH
STRATEGY—LOW DENSITY SLOPES
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 104
PROJECT FOUR
HIGH-DENSITY RIDGES (GROUP ??)
An extension of the current metropolitan urban
limit into the Whitford Valley. The goal is to create a
RURBAN environment able to accommodate 250,000
of the estimated 1million people predicted to swell the
Auckland region in the next 50 years. Preservation of
the native vegetation and restoration of streams and
catchments with a reasonable buffer on either side is
also a priority.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 106
RURBAN: “Creation of an urban age in a city,
maintaining an open structure that connects with the
natural network of the environment which penetrates
the city.”
Different density zones have been created in this
development strategy. These include high, medium and
low densities. The low density zones have more potential
for farming and agricultural use because the area is
less populated and has more open space. Another
reason for this is because each lifestyle block in the low
densities has around 1ha of land per block.
While many of these zones are highly intensified, the
area that is taken up with dwellings and similar is very
low in comparison to the amount of space that is left
for open space, roads, schools and agriculture. A small
portion of this extra area will be used as a 20m buffer
(minimum) for stream and riparian areas. Another
4. INTENSIFYING RURBAN SYSTEMS—HIGH DENSITY RIDGES
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107 SEMIAUTOMATIC
use for these areas are roads, both existing and the future roads that will need to
be built as the Whitford valley population increases over the next 40 years. Open
space (recreational spaces, parks and reserves) play an important part in the lives
of New Zealanders as we are never located far from any of them. They also create an
environment for birds and other native animals.
By integrating various density types, native forest, open space and agricultural areas,
the image and definition of the Rurban lifestyle is able to be maintained. Whitford is
the most practical area for this as it has a wide variety of land forms and vegetation
which allows it to be used in many different ways. The many different functions of this
area will allow 250,000 of the people that will be arriving in Auckland in the next 50
years to be housed with sufficient space for agricultural use. This will mean that our
aim of a Rurban environment will be accomplished in a way that will even allow for
more development in the future if needed.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 108
PROJECT FIVE
HIGH-DENSITY COASTAL SUBURBS (GROUP ??)
An intensification of the Beachlands /Maraetai area,
based off a landscape analysis. A high density mixed
use development within a rural and coastal context.
The Pohutakawa Coast is the site of our project. This
was chosen after viewing the cliff top sea view and
tasting the rural flavour of the area. The design model
chosen was based off the plan for Perth 2040 with the
addition of theories from architect Le Corbusier and
landscape architecture professors Weller and Merten.
The idea is to preserve the rural context and inject
higher density community complexes of 3-5 story mixed
use, residential, and commercial uses with superior
views of the seaside on the ridge lines of Pohutakawa
Beachlands/Maraetai coast. Retail and commercial
would be located on the lower 1-2 levels and residential
high quality apartments on levels 2-3. There would be
approximately 20-30 apartments total. It aims to be a
seamless development with well-considered view shafts
and buildings not exceeding 25 meters in height.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 110
5. POHUTAKAWA COAST—HIGH DENSITY COASTAL
The Main Idea:
A goal to reduce the use of the car led to the idea of developing within 2 kilometres; a
25 minute walk to the coast. The existing farming and lifestyle blocks would be kept
as is, while having walking tracks through them. The apartment complexes would
be placed around parks, the golf course and green space corridors thus creating a
community development for 50,000 people. This would create a smaller footprint,
become more sustainable(less car use), and develop the ferry service around the
coast. Thus it would create a more insular society, a satellite city within our present
community setting without upsetting the rural flavour of the greater area. Lastly, we
envisage greater tourist potential via the ferry service into Beachlands/Maraetai by
connecting to Waiheke now, and at a later date providing transport south to Thames
(possible option).
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111 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 112
PROJECT SIXRURAL TOWN CENTRES (GROUP ??)
An aim to retain the local identity and historical
significance of the Clevedon area. The proposed area
of development is based on Clevedon’s significant
hydrological patterns and the hill ranges around
Clevedon Valley. Ecological connectivity between the
two hill ranges (Hunua’s & Clevedon Reserve) has been
used to keep the development strategy compact and
sustainable.
A structure plan has been generated for the
development of the Clevedon catchment, based on
the model of Auckland becoming a compact city. The
new development is targeted at existing infrastructure
essentially making Papakura a new satellite town
for Auckland and making Clevedon a sub-suburb of
Papakura. The structure plan aims to introduce new
growth into the area while still retaining its existing
self-sufficient resilience, the local identity and historical
significance of the Clevedon area.
This was done by using Clevedon’s significant underlying
hydrological patterns (flood plain and major river
systems) combined with slope, to identify areas for
potential growth. A critical link was discovered between
Papakura and Clevedon through the Clevedon-Papakura
Road as a possible transit upgrade to link together the
two areas.
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113 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 114
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115 SEMIAUTOMATIC
6. CLEVEDON COAST
AND COUNTRY - RURAL TOWN CENTRES
The areas proposed for development have been selected on the following grounds.
Minimal risk of flooding (i.e. not including yearly/ high risk 100year flood area)
Different areas have been selected for different density according to soil types/
erosion risk/ slopes/ proximity to infrastructure and surrounding land use.
Area 1 - High Density: near existing Village, infrastructure to support beginning of
development. Soil structure can support. High-density development is directly linked
to Papakura via Clevedon- Papakura Road.
Area 2 - Medium Density: This area has been selected for medium density because it
is further away from the town centre.
Area 3 - Low Density: This area has been selected due to its proximity to sensitive hill
slopes and native vegetation.
The density of growth is dependent on the proximity to the Hunua Ranges, Clevedon
scenic reserve, and the Clevedon Village. This is to identify densities of development
suitable for that area and to buffer the development edge to protected forests and
ecological systems. High density is near the transport infrastructure (Papakura-
Clevedon Rd) and located within 1.5km of the Clevedon Village.
Medium density is within a 2.5km radius of Clevedon Village to allow for small
ecological buffers such as gardens, parks and small groves of trees. Low density is
located within a 4.5km radius from Clevedon Village, in order to reduce the impact
on forests and ecosystems, but still allow for lifestyle properties to enjoy the bush
lifestyle.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 116
PROJECT SEVEN
LOW-DENSITY RURAL LIFESTYLE (GROUP ??)
The creation of a strategy with the ability to adapt to
change. A development with the capability of tolerating
disturbance and having a restorative capacity. A
focus on the reduction of Auckland’s ecological
footprint, localisation, interdependence, a community
that identifies with their landscape and sustainable
development (current and future).
Basic development strategy:
1000 hectares of the highest quality productive soils
reserved for feeding the local and wider community.
Ecological connectivity and biodiversity are enhanced
by a revegetation programme of riparian corridors and
flood plains.
80 hectares of an increased density ‘MUTT’ based on
proximity to existing settlement and ferry infrastructure
780 hectares for 1600m2 lifestyle zones.
New ferry links enable coastal intensification via mixed
use transport towns and connection to the Hauraki Gulf
islands and central Auckland.
Greenfields resilience represents a growth strategy
that creates highly liveable spaces through low density,
mixed use transport towns and 1600m2 lifestyle options,
helping to reduce Auckland’s ecological footprint. 45,000
people can be accommodated within the 860 hectares
of appropriate land with low density outcomes. High-
quality soils are prioritised for food production.
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117 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 118
Ecological integrity is enhanced through revegetation of riparian margins to create
100m patch corridors and connectivity with existing native vegetation. Mixed use is
prioritised around infrastructure proximity i.e. intensification around transport hubs,
with the addition of ferry services to coastal villages creating commercial centres.
New 1600m2 lifestyle choices are designated in the surrounding land, dispersed
and clustered within the landscape. Commercial activity occupies the lower levels of
apartment buildings enlivening town centres while shared open space encourages
community interaction. Recreational opportunities are provided alongside existing and
restored vegetation which act as connective pathways.
Live/work developments support localisation creating diverse and resilient
communities. The greenfields resilience strategy outlines a means to achieving
a quality, sustainable lifestyle, providing for Aucklanders now and in the future. A
positive move towards the goal of being the most liveable city in the world.
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119 SEMIAUTOMATIC
7. LOW DENSITY RURAL
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 120
07. TYPOLOGY+MORPHOLOGY
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121 SEMIAUTOMATIC
After creating overall development strategies for South-East Auckland in groups,
students branched out on their own to create individual urban design schemes for a
selected site within the initial group growth strategy. The overall focus was on low
impact urban design, ‘liveability’ (high quality of life) and ecological performance
while aiming for the ‘maximum people minimum footprint’ strategy.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 122
HIGH DENSITY MIXED USECOASTAL
Rudolf Iseli
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123 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 124
HIGH DENSITY APARTMENTSRIDGELINE
Jessie Huston
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125 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 126
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127 SEMIAUTOMATIC
LOW/ MEDIUM DENSITY RURAL VILLAGE
FLOODPLAIN
Amanda Tisdall
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 128
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129 SEMIAUTOMATIC
MEDIUM DENSITY COASTAL TOWN
Daisy Tang
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 130
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131 SEMIAUTOMATIC
MEDIUM DENSITYSUBURBANFOOTHILLS
Aidan/ Blair/ Dave??
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 132
MEDIUM DENSITY TERRACE HOUSINGFOOTHILLS
Eli Nathan
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133 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 134
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135 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 136
LOW DENSITY SUBURBANVALLEY
Jasmine Lister
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137 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 138
LOW DENSITYRURAL LIFESTYLEVALLEY
Vicki Williams
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139 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 140
INDUSTRIAL PARKVALLEY
Alistair McCullough
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141 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 142
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143 SEMIAUTOMATIC
COMMERCIAL CENTRECOASTAL
John Allan
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 144
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145 SEMIAUTOMATIC
COMMERCIAL CENTREVALLEY
Mae Tang
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 146
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147 SEMIAUTOMATIC
TYPOLOGY +
MORHPOLOGY
GROUP CASE STUDY
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 148
South-East Auckland High Density Development Plan
A new high density development emerges from current landscape conditions to provide a unique living environment for a high quality life style.Existing native vegetation and urban parklands are retained and enhanced. 100 meter river buffers protect waterways and provide ecological corridors from estuarine environments in to the hills north of the Clevedon valley.New New road ways cut across the landscape, over ridges and through small valleys to provide an experience of the changing landscape character.2375 dwellings are situated along these new pathways within 5 story tower blocks to provide views of the harbour and new revegetated areas.8.7 Ha of 8.7 Ha of retail and office spaces are provided in two story blocks, attached to the residential towers. These create mammoth forms on the landscape to provide close promity living, shopping and working opportunities.8 Ha of new public open spaces are woven through the landscape, along valleys and between mammoth building forms. These iintegrate stormwater management with recreational and passive use spaces throughout the area.
Existing Site
Building Site Established
Removal Of Existing Green Space
Removal Of Revegetated Riparean Margins
Removal Of Existing Roads
Increasing Permeability
Additional Green Space Through Valleys
Complete Development Plan
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149 SEMIAUTOMATIC
South-East Auckland High Density Development Plan
A new high density development emerges from current landscape conditions to provide a unique living environment for a high quality life style.Existing native vegetation and urban parklands are retained and enhanced. 100 meter river buffers protect waterways and provide ecological corridors from estuarine environments in to the hills north of the Clevedon valley.New New road ways cut across the landscape, over ridges and through small valleys to provide an experience of the changing landscape character.2375 dwellings are situated along these new pathways within 5 story tower blocks to provide views of the harbour and new revegetated areas.8.7 Ha of 8.7 Ha of retail and office spaces are provided in two story blocks, attached to the residential towers. These create mammoth forms on the landscape to provide close promity living, shopping and working opportunities.8 Ha of new public open spaces are woven through the landscape, along valleys and between mammoth building forms. These iintegrate stormwater management with recreational and passive use spaces throughout the area.
Existing Site
Building Site Established
Removal Of Existing Green Space
Removal Of Revegetated Riparean Margins
Removal Of Existing Roads
Increasing Permeability
Additional Green Space Through Valleys
Complete Development Plan
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 150
MEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANECOLOGICAL VALUES
MEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANAMENITYMEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANECOLOGICAL VALUES
MEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANCOMMUNAL SPACE
INTEGRATED NETWORKSCOMMUNAL SPACE
HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSESMEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANAMENITY
QUALITY OF LIFE
PUBLIC-PRIVATE OWNERSHIPMEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLAN
HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES
Chris Judd
This new development is a portion of a larger zone within the wider catchment between Beachlands and Maraetai in South East Auckland. This portion of the proposed development contains medium density housing that will house approximately 2500 people in both suburban style properties and terraced housing units.
The larger suburban properties are situated on the steeper land surrounding rivers and valleys that have been revegetated to help enhance the ecological value of the area, increase the stream water quality and prevent erosion. These properties form communities based around the central revegetated area, creating an improved living environment with increased amenity value that exposes inhabitants to native plant species.
Within these revegetated areas are a series of walking and cycle paths that help to integrate amenity and recreation for the people in the area. These paths follow the streams out to the coast and provide a network that links the new development via walking and cycling.
The notion of communities based around high amenity areas is repeated in the terraced housing zone, with houses based around community parks and gardens. The gardens enclosed by the terraced housing are private, owned and maintained by the inhabitants and serve the important purpose of dealing with stormwater run off in the form of communal raingardens and native vegetation plantingsv.
The suburban style section is based on an average plot size of 500m2 with a 250m2 building footprint, while the terraced housing is based on an average of two 100m2 two story units on a plot size of 250m2. These units are connected.
Southeast Auckland Growth StrategyBEACHLANDS-MARAETAI DEVELOPMENT
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151 SEMIAUTOMATIC
MEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANECOLOGICAL VALUES
MEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANAMENITYMEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANECOLOGICAL VALUES
MEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANCOMMUNAL SPACE
INTEGRATED NETWORKSCOMMUNAL SPACE
HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSESMEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLANAMENITY
QUALITY OF LIFE
PUBLIC-PRIVATE OWNERSHIPMEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLAN
HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES
Chris Judd
This new development is a portion of a larger zone within the wider catchment between Beachlands and Maraetai in South East Auckland. This portion of the proposed development contains medium density housing that will house approximately 2500 people in both suburban style properties and terraced housing units.
The larger suburban properties are situated on the steeper land surrounding rivers and valleys that have been revegetated to help enhance the ecological value of the area, increase the stream water quality and prevent erosion. These properties form communities based around the central revegetated area, creating an improved living environment with increased amenity value that exposes inhabitants to native plant species.
Within these revegetated areas are a series of walking and cycle paths that help to integrate amenity and recreation for the people in the area. These paths follow the streams out to the coast and provide a network that links the new development via walking and cycling.
The notion of communities based around high amenity areas is repeated in the terraced housing zone, with houses based around community parks and gardens. The gardens enclosed by the terraced housing are private, owned and maintained by the inhabitants and serve the important purpose of dealing with stormwater run off in the form of communal raingardens and native vegetation plantingsv.
The suburban style section is based on an average plot size of 500m2 with a 250m2 building footprint, while the terraced housing is based on an average of two 100m2 two story units on a plot size of 250m2. These units are connected.
Southeast Auckland Growth StrategyBEACHLANDS-MARAETAI DEVELOPMENT
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 152
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153 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 154
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155 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 156
08. GREEN INFRASTRUCTUREDESIGN DETAILS
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157 SEMIAUTOMATIC
Once developed, a strategy for each of our individual zones which created a single
cohesive entity we moved on to a smaller resolution into an area of each of our
developments. As per the brief of project 3 we were to each develope a unique water
management plan. Here are the A0 posters we presented, 4 very individual ideas all of
which we think could make a grerat environment for living
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 158
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159 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 160
perspective_1
Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.
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161 SEMIAUTOMATIC
perspective 2
INTEGRATEDTRANSPORT NETWORKS
Student Student
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 162
Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.
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163 SEMIAUTOMATIC
WETLAND RESERVOIR
Jordan Draffin
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 164
FountainMaraetai Ridge
A
A
B
BIn this model of street design, people frequently occupy the space on the wide, ungoverned crossings,
making cars drive at a slow pace. Planting the specimen trees along the opposite side of the road from
the park helps to include the road into this public space. The trees are trimmed so people have a clear
lane is collected at source and removed via transpiration, with excess being drained into the treatment
shrubs.
Roof water is manipulated through a network of pipes and collected in a treatment pond. The pond is
part of a large fountain, which continually airates the water, creating a more habitable ecosystem, as
attractive to native birds. These plant will treat the water, and be harvested periodically to remove
contaminants. The pond is less than 1m deep, so that it does not require a fence. The fountain will be
light up at night and provide attraction to tourists and value to the area. It is made from corten steel to
show the beautiy in things which are old, and changing over time, representing the changes the town is
The Plants chosen for the site are all eco-sourced natives, which
have characteristics suitable to the site conditions, and provide food
and habbitat to the local native bird species
A. Alectryon Excelsus - titoki, NZ Oak 7m x 4m
main street tree, as it is tolerant of
varying conditions
Planted around pond
C. Dacrycarpus dacrydioides - kahiktea <30m x 8m
Specimen trees planted at edge
of park
D. Caprosma robusta - karamu 2m shrub
Ground cover on slope between road
and park
The proposed new settlement exists along the ridges of the Maraetai hills, with a gondola as the primary
form of transport in and out of the community. This form of transport provides the opportunity intergrate
and treated at source within this community through a series of tree pits, swales and rain gardens, before it
enters the sensitive natural hydrological system.
A B
DC
The rain gardens are designed to
This diagram shows a typical cross
accordording to Auckland Regional
Council Storm water management
guidelines
Calculating the required surface area of
Af = surface area (m2)
WQV = treatment volume (m3)
df = planting soil depth (m)
h = average height of water (m) = ½ max.
depth
tf = time to pass WQV through soil bed
(use one day to be conservative)
gondola
Thomas Keal 1204909
PUBLIC SPACEThomas Keal
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165 SEMIAUTOMATIC
FountainMaraetai Ridge
A
A
B
BIn this model of street design, people frequently occupy the space on the wide, ungoverned crossings,
making cars drive at a slow pace. Planting the specimen trees along the opposite side of the road from
the park helps to include the road into this public space. The trees are trimmed so people have a clear
lane is collected at source and removed via transpiration, with excess being drained into the treatment
shrubs.
Roof water is manipulated through a network of pipes and collected in a treatment pond. The pond is
part of a large fountain, which continually airates the water, creating a more habitable ecosystem, as
attractive to native birds. These plant will treat the water, and be harvested periodically to remove
contaminants. The pond is less than 1m deep, so that it does not require a fence. The fountain will be
light up at night and provide attraction to tourists and value to the area. It is made from corten steel to
show the beautiy in things which are old, and changing over time, representing the changes the town is
The Plants chosen for the site are all eco-sourced natives, which
have characteristics suitable to the site conditions, and provide food
and habbitat to the local native bird species
A. Alectryon Excelsus - titoki, NZ Oak 7m x 4m
main street tree, as it is tolerant of
varying conditions
Planted around pond
C. Dacrycarpus dacrydioides - kahiktea <30m x 8m
Specimen trees planted at edge
of park
D. Caprosma robusta - karamu 2m shrub
Ground cover on slope between road
and park
The proposed new settlement exists along the ridges of the Maraetai hills, with a gondola as the primary
form of transport in and out of the community. This form of transport provides the opportunity intergrate
and treated at source within this community through a series of tree pits, swales and rain gardens, before it
enters the sensitive natural hydrological system.
A B
DC
The rain gardens are designed to
This diagram shows a typical cross
accordording to Auckland Regional
Council Storm water management
guidelines
Calculating the required surface area of
Af = surface area (m2)
WQV = treatment volume (m3)
df = planting soil depth (m)
h = average height of water (m) = ½ max.
depth
tf = time to pass WQV through soil bed
(use one day to be conservative)
gondola
Thomas Keal 1204909
Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily
populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be
put on these bones. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 166
Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This
straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.
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167 SEMIAUTOMATIC
RAIN GARDEN
John Allan
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 168
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169 SEMIAUTOMATIC
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 170
Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This
straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. Caption.
The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”.
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171 SEMIAUTOMATIC
SWALE
Student Student
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 172
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173 SEMIAUTOMATIC
SWALE
Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”.
Student Student
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 174
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 176
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 178
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 180
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 182
09. REFLECTION
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 184
The resulting project outcomes generated a few conclusions.
Depending on landscape metric prioritisation, outcomes fell into three strategic
categories: promote development opportunities, enhance ecological areas or protect
productive land.
The approach tended to be landscape conservative; only a couple of projects favoured
extreme development scenarios.
Concluded that not one strategy was more feasible over another for such a large area,
and that aspects of each could potentially be adopted over time.
Each project could be framed within a longer timeframe e.g. initial growth around
existing settlements + transport nodes, followed by development of slopes and then
finally ridges.
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185 SEMIAUTOMATIC
Not surprisingly each group came up with unique growth strategies and designated
areas of land retirement. The general observation after this first phase was that there
wasn’t actually that much land in east Auckland suitable for development without
encroaching on land that either wasn’t appropriate for building or was more suited to
other purposes such as agriculture.
The individual urban design development phase also differed depending on each
student’s areas of research and conclusions as to what would create the most
sustainable landscape driven development. These ranged from more compact nodes
of high density development to low density subdivisions. Images from these projects
demonstrate some of the resulting outcomes reflecting possible new planning options
for the Auckland region.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 186
10. CONCLUSION
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 188
This investigation demonstrates how a landscape-based methodology for an
ecological urbanism can be developed from a close understanding of both
infrastructure and landscape to produce a radically new design for the post-city
Auckland. Approaching the city as a landscape, internally supported with green,
grey, smart infrastructure, offers a fresh direction. In Auckland’s case, due to a
fortunate set of historic and geographic circumstances this new model would be
easy to implement. By accepting a low-rise, regionally polycentric city, Auckland can
become a new model of urban-regional development of relevance for all low-density
cities in the world. This is significant as similar cities now compromise 60% of all the
urban fabric in the world, and within 10-20years might even reach 90%. For them, the
compact city model is of little relevance.
Auckland 2040 will be a linear city, with a 100 km long ‘infrastructure spine’ running
through its middle. On both sides of the spine, there will be suburbs with town and
suburban centres. The spine itself is like a necklace - a corridor of fast-transit and
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189 SEMIAUTOMATIC
other high order infrastructure connects a dozen of city-hubs. On the spine’s flanks,
both along the sea and the land side, are the suburbs with varying densities. They are
endowed with all the local and natural amenities and supported by a mix of green and
technical infrastructure, with varying degrees of independence/reticulation.
In the process of developing a new plan and strategy for growth based off landscape
methodology, NZ could discover gold; its industries would be embarking on a form of
green knowledge economy that is certain to be the greatest growth stimulus in the
21st century and a big exports booster. As the student projects demonstrate there
are many ways this method can be applied while protecting New Zealand’s natural
heritage. Continuing to grow Auckland based on a centric, compact layout, supported
by traditional, expensive and vulnerable infrastructure, while fencing it off from one of
the best residential landscapes in the world - would be an environmental, cultural and
economic tragedy.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 190
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 192
11. REFERENCES
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193 SEMIAUTOMATIC
Chapter 01. Context
http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20
Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm
http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-2011-
3BW.pdf
Chapter 02. Contemporary research
http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20
Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm
http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-2011-
3BW.pdf
Chapter 03. Proposition
http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20
Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm
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SEMIAUTOMATIC 194
http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-2011-
3BW.pdf
Chapter 04. Potential Periurban Growth Areas East of Auckland
http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20
Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm
http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-2011-
3BW.pdf
Chapter 05. Landscape metrics
http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20
Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm
http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-2011-
3BW.pdf
Chapter 06. Growth strategies
http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20
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195 SEMIAUTOMATIC
Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm
http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-2011-
3BW.pdf
Chapter 07. Typology + Morphology
http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20
Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm
http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-2011-
3BW.pdf
Chapter 08. Green Infrastructure details
http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20
Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm
http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-2011-
3BW.pdf
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12. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Arendt, R. (1994). Rural by Design: Maintaining Small town Character. Chicago:
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Blais, P. (2010). Perverse Cities: Hidden Subsidies, Wonky Policy, and Urban Sprawl.
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Bruegmann, R. (2005). Sprawl: A Compact History. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
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Rural Dichotomy. Burlington: Ashgate.
Frey, H. (1999). Designing the City: Towards a More Sustainable Form. London: E & FN
Spon Press
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Gleeson, B. J. (2010). Lifeboat Cities. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.
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Jenks, M., & Jones, C. (2010). Dimensions of the Sustainable City. New York: Springer
Sieverts, T. (2003). Cities Without Cities: An Interpretation of the Zwischenstadt. (3rd
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HEADING
SUB HEADING SUB SUB HEADING
The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.
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Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.
Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.
The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.
The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.
Body copy. The term slum includes the traditional meaning, that is, housing areas that
were once respectable or even desirable, but which have since deteriorated, as the
original dwellers have moved to new and better areas of cities. The condition of the
old houses has then declined, and the units have been progressively subdivided and
rented out to lower-income groups. A typical example is the innercity slums of many
historical towns and cities in both the industrial and the developing countries The
term slum has, however, come to include also the vast informal settlements that are
quickly becoming the most visual expression of urban poverty. The quality of dwellings
in such settlements varies from the simplest shack to permanent structures, while
access to water, electricity, sanitation and other basic services and infrastructure
tends to be limited. Such settlements are referred to by a wide range of names and
include a variety of tenurial arrangements. (UN Habitat. “Cities without Slums’ paper