Schedule:Thursday, 3/05, lectureTuesday, 3/17, after semester break, lectureThursday, 3/19, E5
1
PSY 4600
Note: the last day to withdraw from classes w/o academic penalty is Monday, 3/23
May feel there is a gap in your knowledge of psychology – there is, and VB fills that gap
Need to understand verbal behavior to understand what is commonly referred to as higher level “cognitive processes” Thinking Memory Consciousness
2
(what you have learned to date just can’t account for these; you are right; complex; only going to touch on it in this unit – chapter by Sundberg does go further than I am going to go. )
Verbal Behavior: 3 articles in the unit Article by Mark Sundberg
▪ Ph.D., WMU, 1980▪ First to systematically apply Skinner’s analysis
of vb to language intervention programs for children with autism and developmental disabilities
▪ First to develop an assessment of vb in children using Skinner’s analysis▪ First version sold over 175,000 copies around the globe▪ Second version, published in Sept. 2008, has sold over
125,000 copies, with sales in 25 different countries (VB MAPP) 3
(not the first, language tr.; Sundberg&Assoc; BattleCreek,dept. dist alum, 2001; the current version is based on over 30 years of research)
Research article by LaMarre & Holland Demonstrates the “functional independence”
of mands and tacts Proves one of Skinner’s most important and
basic analyses about VB▪ A word is not a word is not a word – more on this later
Make-believe memories: Elizabeth Loftus Not required for the exam Fascinating and somewhat “scary” article
about how easily our memories can be altered by suggestion (the vb of others) and reinforcement of our vb by others
4
5
marksundberg.com
The formal properties of language involve the structure (i.e., form) of language Phonemes: individual speech sounds Morphemes: words, units that have meaning Lexicon: total collection of words in a language Syntax: organization of words, clauses,
phrases into sentences Grammar: established conventions in a
language
6(classification of words as nouns, pronouns, adverbs, verbs, prepositional clauses, etc.)
The functional properties of language involve the causes of the response Why we say, write, sign, etc. what we do
7
(signing: American Sign Language; no more on slide)
Skinner’s analysis is a functional analysis of language
Skinner did not criticize formal analyses of language (common misconception)
Skinner, however, was critical of the fact that there weren’t any adequate functional analyses of verbal behavior
A complete account of verbal behavior requires both formal and functional analyses
8
Verbal Behavior, 1957 Skinner believed it was his most
important work However, it wasn’t until 20-25 years later
that his book became a “best seller” Sundberg was the one who really made it
catch fire because of his development of a practical training program for children with DD and autism (started at Croydon Ave –now Woods Edge, back in the 1970s.)
9(Skinner was actually an English major in college; wanted to be a writer; failed at that)
Linguists VB was strongly criticized by Chomsky, a
popular psycholinguist Individuals in the humanities and social
sciences do/did tend to have general anti-behavioral beliefs
Recent reviews have been more sympathetic Behavior Analysts
Completely conceptual: no data! Extremely difficult book
10(Bob D’Louhy, Celcis; is incredible, because his analyses that have been investigated have been supported: LaMarre&Holland, TAVB, MS)
1982
Verbal and nonverbal behavior Verbal behavior is no different than
nonverbal operant behavior with respect to its causes
It is learned, extended, and maintained by the same variables that cause nonverbal operant behavior
▪ Motivating operations▪ SDs and S∆s▪ Reinforcement, punishment, and extinction
11(definition on next slide)
Verbal behavior is behavior that is reinforced through the mediation of another person’s behavior
Nonverbal: R (open door) Sr (door is open)Verbal: R (“open door”) Sr (listener opens door)
Nonverbal: R (gets a glass of water) SR (water)Verbal: R (“May I have water?”) SR (listener
gives water)12
Skinner makes a clear distinction between the speaker and listener
The speaker is the verbal behaver* The listener is the person who is
affected by what the speaker says**Skinner’s analysis focuses on the
speaker – that is, why does the speaker say what he says?
*traditionally called “expressive language”**traditionally called “receptive language”
13
14
For Skinner vb is any behavior reinforced through the mediation of another person's behavior.
[In some contexts verbal is a synonym for vocal (making sounds with the vocal musculature). In such contexts, writing, gesturing, etc. would be nonverbal.]
vocal verbal
making sounds with vocal musculature -- talking to someone to affect another person
nonvocal verbal
writing, signing (ASL), finger spelling, waving someone over, pointing to something, gesturing to affect another person
nonvocal nonverbal
walking, picking something up, opening a door, turning lights on, putting a key in a lock
vocal nonverbal
coughing, yawning, grunting, -- making sounds with vocal musculature that are not done to affect another person
Vocal verbal behavior 1. Say “tree” as a result of seeing a tree
2. Smack your lips audibly so someone will give you food or water
(use of vocal musculature)3. Sigh audibly to get the attention of your significant other
(use of vocal musculature)4. Clear your throat to get attention (use of vocal musculature)
15
Nonvocal verbal behavior*1. Arms up, wants to be lifted up by Mom
2. Kick your sig. other under the table, wanting him to shut up3. Pointing to a pastry in a bakery shop, wanting the clerk to get it for you4. Waving for attention
16
*in addition to writing, signing, reading, braille, picture communication systems
Vocal nonverbal1.Grunting as a result of lifting something heavy2. Coughing as a result of an irritated throat3. Yawning as a result of being tired, or to “unclog your ears”
Nonvocal nonverbal behavior1. Looking at the clock, wanting to know the time2. Putting up an umbrella, don’t want to get wet
17
(could be verbal as well – grutning, wanting your roomate to help you lift something; yawning, wanting someone to leave; next slide, verbal operants)
Skinner identified six verbal operants(also called elementary verbal relations) Mand Tact Echoic Intraverbal Textual Transcription
18
Skinner identified six verbal operants(also called elementary verbal relations) Mand Tact Echoic Intraverbal Textual Transcription
19
I am going to have you learnthese four for the exam
(these are the ones required on the BA certification exam as well)
Verbal responses that are controlled/caused by the same variables The classification system is based on what
causes the verbal response▪ What antecedent event/stimulus evokes the
response▪ What type of reinforcement follows the response
20Examples, next page)
Child wants the SpongeBob video
ResponseMO ResponseSpecific
Reinforcement
“SpongeBob”Mom gives the child the SpongeBob video
Mand
Nonverbal SD ResponseGeneralized
Sr
Tact
Child sees poster of SpongeBob“SpongeBob” Mom says, “Good! Yes, that is SpongeBob.”
(verbal response is the same; different antecedent and different type of reinforcement; antecedents …)
:
:
Mand: Asking for reinforcers you want
Saying “shoe” because you want a shoe Tact: Naming/identifying objects, actions, events, etc.
Saying “shoe” because you see a shoe Echoic: Repeating what is said, signed, or written
Saying “shoe” after someone else says “shoe” Intraverbal: Answering questions or word associations
Saying “shoe” after someone else says “socks” Textual: Reading written words
Saying “shoe” because you see the written word “shoe” Transcription: Writing or spelling words spoken to you
Writing “shoe” because you hear someone say “shoe”
22(present them altogether first, then we will do them one by one; Not precise enough for science, but helpful; taking dictation – finger spelling)
Plain English: Asking for reinforcers you want Technically,
The antecedent event that controls the mand is the MO
The type of reinforcement that follows the mand is reinforcement related to the MO
ExamplesMO (want cookie): R (“cookie”) SR (cookie, provided
by listener)MO (want to leave party): R (sign “leave”) Sr (leave
with date)
23(form and MO next; more examples in a moment)
The mand is a verbal operant for which the form of the response is under the functional control of MOs and specific reinforcement What is meant by the form of the response?
Just the specific “word”You say “pizza” if you want a pizza or food rather than “DVD”You say “stop” if you want someone to stop doing something rather than “book”
24(MO, next slide)
What is a motivating operation?A motivating operation: -- makes a consequence more or less reinforcing and -- evokes or suppresses responses that have, in the
past, resulted in that consequence Food deprivation:
-- makes food more reinforcing and -- evokes responses that have, in the past, resulted in food
25
For now, it’s OK to use “wanting” (except for the answer to SO9A: technically, what antecedent event controls the mand)
Next unit, we spend the entire unit on MOs; it will NOT be OK to substitute the “wanting” for MO in that unit
26
A TENDENCY TO:
Say “apple” Sign “pen” Text “cm” Say “awesome boots” Hold up 2 fingers Say “salt, please” Write “this lecture
sucks” Point to item on menu Say “thanks”
SOLELY AS A RESULT OF:
wanting an apple wanting a pen wanting a person to call you wanting more interaction wanting two things tasting food, wanting salt wanting attention frm
another stdnt wanting to order that item wanting someone to help you
in the future27(questions about the mand? next slide, tacts)
Mand: Reinforcement is specific to the MO
▪ If the MO is “wanting water” (water dep), the rft is water
▪ If the MO is “wanting” a pen, the reinforcement is the pen
▪ If the MO is “wanting” two things, the rft is the two things
All other verbal operants Reinforcement is generalized conditioned
reinforcement
28
So, before dealing with the tact, I want to deal with GSr, Sos 14, 15, 16
In Table 25.2, the abbreviation for a generalized conditioned reinforcer is GCSR
What’s wrong with that?
29
(answer not on slide)
A conditioned reinforcer is a reinforcer that has been paired with one other reinforcer when the individual has been deprived of that reinforcer When food deprived: NS/SR (food) When water deprived: NS/SR (water) When in pain: NS/SR (relief of pain) When attention deprived: NS/Sr (mom’s
attention)
30
A generalized conditioned reinforcer is a reinforcer that has been paired with a variety of reinforcers when the individual has been deprived of those reinforcers When food deprived, water deprived, in pain,
deprived of mom’s attention:
NS/SR (food), NS/SR (water), NS/SR (relief from pain),
NS/Sr (mom’s attention) Common GSrs include
Praise, attention, social interaction, smiles, money, etc.
31(become almost independent of any motivating operation; function as reinforcers almost all the time)
32
The difference between a conditioned reinforcer and a generalized conditioned reinforcer is that:
-- a conditioned reinforcer reinforces only one behavior-- a generalized conditioned reinforcer reinforces any behavior that it follows
(answer not on slides; cannot use SO15 definition to answer this; it does not answer this question, now onto the tact, that is reinforced by GSr;)
Plain English: Naming/identifying objects, actions, events, etc.
Technically, The antecedent event that controls a tact is
a nonverbal SD The type of reinforcement that follows the
tact is a generalized conditioned reinforcer
Examples:SpeakerSD (see mommy): R ( say “mommy”) GSr (“that’s
right, I’m mommy!”)
SD (smelling smoke): R (sign “fire”) GSr (signs, “yes”)
33
Listener reinforces
A TENDENCY TO:
Sign “tree” Say “up” Text “AITR” Write “helicopter” Say “DVD”* Finger spell “Caio” Say “bacon” Say “high” Write “PSY 4600, U5”
SOLELY AS A RESULT OF:
seeing a tree feeling the elevator go
up seeing an adult in the
room hearing a helicopter seeing a CD seeing Caio’s girlfriend smelling bacon cooking seeing a kite in the air seeing Dr. Dickinson
enter the room34(*”correctness” doesn’t matter)
A TENDENCY TO
Say “pizza” Sign “truck” Write “leave”
AS A RESULT OF*
both wanting and seeing a pizza
both wanting and seeing a toy truck
both wanting to leave a lecture and seeing someone else leave the lecture early
35(not “solely now; echoic next)
Plain English: Repeating what is heard, signed or written
Technically, The antecedent event that controls an echoic is
a verbal SD that has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the response product
The type of reinforcer that follows the echoic is a generalized conditioned reinforcer
36(I’ll deal with point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity a bit later; all verbal operants, except the mand are reinforced with GSrs; examples next slide )
Examples:Speaker
SD (hear “book”): R ( say “book”) GSr (“good!”)SD (see someone sign “cat”): R (sign “cat”) GSr
( “yes”)SD (see “echoic” on white board): R (write “echoic”)
GSr (OK gesture)
37
Listener reinforces
Definition of a responseMovement of the skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and secretion of the glands
Definition of a response productThe visual, auditory, or tactile stimulus that results from the response (i.e., the product of the response)
38(Before I deal with ptp corresp and formal similarity; response product; move this to U2: its an important distinction in NVB as well as VB)
RESPONSE Movement of the
vocal musculature when saying “milk”
Movement of the skeletal muscles when writing “milk”
Movement of the skeletal muscles when signing “milk”
RESPONSE PRODUCT The auditory stimulus
of hearing “milk”
The visual stimulus of the written word “milk”
The visual stimulus of the sign “milk”
39(questions? Next slide pt to pt correspondence)
Plain English: the response product is the same word as the stimulus (not good enough for the exam, but possibly helpful)
Technically, the beginning, middle, and end of the verbal SD matches the beginning, middle, and end of the response product
40
(Reminder: echoics are evoked by a verbal SD that has pt to pt correspondence andformal similarity with the response product)
ExamplesSD (hear “cat”): R (say “cat”)
41
SD (hear “cat”): R (write “cat”)
Examples SD (see “cat”): R (say “cat”)
42
SD (see “cat”): R (write “cat”)
More examplesSD (see someone sign “dog”): R (sign “dog”)SD (see someone finger spell “dog”): R (finger spell “dog”)SD (see “WMU” written): R (finger spell “WMU”)SD (see “snow” written): R (say “snow”)SD (hear someone say “bell”): R (write “bell”)
43(nonexamples, next slide)
NonexamplesSD (hear “dog”): R (say “chiuaua”)SD (see “5”): R (write “five”)SD (hear “percentage”): R (write “%”)SD (hear “write your name”): R (write your name: “Jeana”)SD (see someone sign “dog”): R (say “dog”)SD (see “cat”): R (sign “cat”)
44
(cannot be ptp correspondence between signing and anything but signing)
Formal similarityBoth the verbal SD and the response product are in the same sense modeThat is, both are auditory, visual, or tactile*
45examples and nonexamples next)
*For signing must be another sign, not just a visual stimulus such as a written word
ExamplesSD (hear “bear”): R (say “bear”) auditory/auditorySD (see “bear” written): R (write “bear”) visual/visual SD (see someone sign “bear”): R (sign “bear”) sign/signSD (hear “milk”): R (say “cookies”)SD (see someone sign “milk”): R (sign “cookies”)SD (see “milk” written): R (write “milk”)
NonexamplesSD (hear “bear”): R (write “bear”) auditory/visualSD (see “bear” written): R (sign “bear”) visual/signSD (see someone sign “bear”): R (say “bear”) sign/auditory SD (hear someone say “milk”): R (sign “cookies”) auditory/sign
46(questions? Examples of echoics next)
Note these twocarefully. They haveformal similarity eventhough they do not have point-to-pointcorrespondence
Plain English: Repeating, imitating what is heard, signed or written
Technically, the antecedent event that controls an echoic is a verbal SD that has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the response product
ExamplesSD (hear “book”): R ( say “book”) ptp:
auditory/auditory
SD (see someone sign “cat”): R (sign “cat”) ptp: sign/sign
SD (see “echoic” on white board): R (write “echoic”) ptp: visual/visual
SD (see someone finger spell “WMU”): R (finger spell “WMU”)
ptp: finger spell/finger spell
47(less technically, there is an exact match between the verbal SD and response product; onto intraverbals)
Plain English: Answering questions and word associations
Technically, The antecedent event that controls an IV is a
verbal SD that does not have point-to-point correspondence with the response product▪ Note: formal similarity is irrelevant
The type of reinforcer that follows an intraverbal is a generalized conditioned reinforcer
48(Sundberg doesn’t say word associations, but particularly helpful; words controlled by different words; examples next slide)
Examples:Speaker
SD (hear “color”): R ( say “red”) GSr (“Yes, red is a color. I like red, too”)
SD (see someone sign “cat”): R (sign “dog”) GSr ( “yes”)
SD (see “red, white, and”): R (say “blue”) GSr (listener smiles, nods)
SD (hear “five”): R (write “5”) GSr (“yep”)SD (hear “where do you live?”): R (say “Kalamazoo”) GSr
(“that’s cool”)
49
Listener reinforces
(no ptp, formal similarity doesn’t matter)
Examples:Speaker
SD (hear “color”): R ( say “red”) no ptp
SD (see someone sign “cat”): R (sign “dog”) no ptp
SD (see “red, white, and”): R (say “blue”) no ptp
SD (hear “five”): R (write “5”) no ptp
SD (hear “where do you live?”): R (say “Kalamazoo”) no ptp
50
(same examples, no ptp, formal similarity doesn’t matter)
Plain English: Reading* written wordsTechnically,
The antecedent event that controls a textual is a visual or tactile (braille) verbal SD that has point-to-point correspondence but not formal similarity
The response product is auditory The type of reinforcement is GSr
51
(I am going to give you examples to classify on exam, and I will have textuals and transcriptions, but I am not going to require you to identify them as such, bonus pts. “V”; do have to recognize that they are not examples of mands, tacts, echoics, and intraverbals;* textuals – not reading because reading implies“understanding” and Skinner did not want that implication)
ExamplesSD (see “car”): R (say “car”) GSr (“yes!”) ptp: visual/auditory
SD (see “mand”): R (say “mand”) GSr (“OK!”) ptp: visual/auditory
SD (see “up”): R (say “up”) GSr (“Yep”) ptp: visual/auditory
SD (see “cat”): R (say “cat”) GSr (“good!”) ptp: visual/auditory
Reminder: SD is a written verbal stimulus Response product has point-to-point correspondence with SD Response product does not have formal similarity with the
SD Reinforcement is GSr
52
Plain English: Writing, typing, and finger spelling words you hear (taking dictation)
Technically, The antecedent event that controls a transcription
is an auditory verbal SD that has point-to-point correspondence but not formal similarity
The response product is visual: (written, typed, or spelled)▪ Basically, a visual stimulus that is not signing: signing
cannot have point-to-point correspondence with an auditory SD
The type of reinforcement is a GSr
53(Skinner: Taking dictation, Mark changed name to better include finger spelling)
ExamplesSD (hear “car”): R (write “car”) GSr (“good!”)
SD (hear “WMU”): R (finger spell “WMU”) GSr (“yeah, man, go Broncos!”)
SD (hear“Jake”) : R (write “Jake”) GSr (“yep, that’s Jake”)SD (hear “library”): R (text “library”) GSr (message/noise
that text has been sent)
Reminder:
54(Skinner: Taking dictation, Mark changed name to better include finger spelling)
•SD: auditory verbal stimulus•Response product has point-to-point correspondence with SD•Response product does not have formal similarity with SD•Response product is visual (written, typed, or finger spelled)•Reinforcement is GSr
ExamplesSD (hear “car”): R (write “car”) ptp: auditory/visual
SD (hear “WMU”): R (finger spell “WMU”) ptp: auditory/visual
SD (hear“Jake”): R (write “Jake”) ptp: auditory/visualSD (hear “library”): R (text “library”) ptp: auditory/visual
55
(ptp, auditory/visual (but not signing)
56
Elementary Verbal Operants (Relations)
MO SD
Form of R controlled by
mand
verbal SD nonverbal SD
ptp no ptp
tact
intraverbal
formal similarity no formal similarityechoi
ctextual (visual/auditory)transcription (auditory/visual)
In Table 25.3, the classification exercise in the chapter, the textuals are misclassified!
Incorrect examples7. Write “book” as a result of hearing “book”
26. Finger spell “run” as a result of hearing “run”
These are both transcriptions, not textuals ptp: auditory/visual
57
A TENDENCY TOA TENDENCY TO
Say “airplane” Say “I’m fine” Say “cookies” Step on the brakes Say “red” Write “book” Sign “apple” Say “mesa”
SOLELY AS A RESULT OFSOLELY AS A RESULT OF
Hearing an airplane Hearing “How are you?” Smelling cookies baking* Seeing “stop” written on
sign Hearing “color”* Hearing “book”* Seeing “apple” written Hearing “table”
58(*Why T/M as answer in book?; why M?; why IV/T as answer in book?; TS, not TX; all signs except T and E, must be IV )
A TENDENCY TO
Write “wet” Sign “tree” Say “WMU” Turn up heat Write “large” Say “cat” Write “book” Say “loud”
Sign “4”
SOLELY AS A RESULT OF
Hearing “ocean” Seeing a tree Seeing “WMU” Wanting it to be warmer Hearing “large” Seeing someone sign
“cat” Wanting a book Hearing someone yell
“GO BRONCOS” Hearing “four”
59
Previously….The listener mediates the reinforcement for the speaker
And also (new, 28A) The listener becomes an SD for the
speaker’s behavior* Non-technically, the listener is an
audience for verbal behavior
60(Skinner quote next slide along with diagram, 28B)
*Note carefully that the listener does not become a reinforcer for the listener – which is a commonincorrect answer when I ask this question (actually the listener could become a reinforcer for the listener but that is not the point of this analysis, so I will consider this answer incorrect)
Skinner:“An audience, then, is a discriminative stimulus in the presence of which verbal behavior is characteristically reinforced and in the presence of which, therefore, it is characteristically strong.” *
61
SD: R (speaker) GSr or SR/Sr (audience) verbal responsereinforcement
provided byS∆: R (speaker) EXT No (audience) verbal response No reinforcement
*And in the absence of which verbal behavior is not reinforced, emphasis on Sr, Ext)
The audience is an SD in the presence of which a verbal response is characteristically strong, but the audience does not control the type of the verbal response (verbal operant)
The antecedent MO, nonverbal stimulus, or verbal stimulus that is also present controls the type of the verbal response
62
(whether you emit a mand, tact, intraverbal, etc.,
Example
MO: (food dep): SD (friend): R (will you share your potato chips with me?) SR (food)
SD: (sight of Dr. D): SD (friend): R (hey, there’s Dr. D!) Sr (“glad you warned me, man!”)
LaMarre & Holland (1985) JEAB
63
This study demonstrates that the elementary verbal operants are fucntionally independent, that is: Controlled by different variables (MO, verbal SD,
nonverbal SD) Just because a person can say “milk” as a mand does
not mean that the person can say “milk” as a tact▪ A word is not a word is not a word
Common belief both in both linguistics and lay community is that we learn the “meaning” of a word and then can use it in all different situations
64
(as we get older and become fluent speakers, this changes, and we can/do generalize across the verbal operants; the fact that children can’t means that weshould be teaching verbal behavior to those who have trouble developing it very differently than has often been done in the past; stroke victims/brain injured/alzhiemerstend to loose Ts before other elementary operants – can mand easily, but not emit tacts)
Participants: 9 children, 3 ½ - 5 years old Verbal responses: “on the right” and “on the left” 4 participants
1. Trained “on the right” and “on the left” as mands2. Tested to see whether the kids could then tact “on the
right” and “on the left”3. Trained to tact “on the right” and “on the left”4. Reversed mand training: Retrained the kids to say
▪ “on the right” when they wanted an object placed on the left and
▪ “on the left” when they wanted an object placed on the right
5. Tested to see if the tacts “on the right” and “on the left” reversed as well
65(typically developing kids, couldn’t use colors, animals, etc., verbal response the kids couldn’t emit as a mand or tact)
5 participants as control received tact training first1. Trained “on the right” and “on the left” as tacts2. Tested to see whether the kids could then mand
“on the right” and “on the left”3. Trained to mand “on the right” and “on the left”4. Reversed tact training: Retrained the kids to say
▪ “on the right” when the object was on the left and
▪ “on the left” when the object was on the right5. Tested to see if the mands “on the right” and “on
the left” reversed as well
66
However, a word of caution about SO34:“What did the collateral tacting testing procedure consist of?”
I define what collateral tacting testing is in the study objective, but I do not tell you how they did it. That is different, and that is what I am asking you to learn.
67
For all nine participants, mands and tacts were shown to be functionally independent. That is, Children who were first trained to mand
“on the right” and “on the left” were not able to tact “on the right” and “on the left” and
Children who were first trained to tact “on the right” and “on the left” were not able to mand “on the right” and “on the left”
68
For six of the nine participants reversing one verbal operant did not reverse the other. That is, Children who were retrained to say
“on the right” when they wanted the object on the left and “on the left” when they wanted the object on the right as mands
continued to tact “on the right” when the object was, indeed, on the right and “on the left” when the object was, indeed, on the left
Children who were retrained to say▪ “on the right” when the object was actually on the left and “on
the left” when the object was actually on the right as tacts▪ continued to say “on the right” when they wanted the object on
the right and “on the left” when they wanted the object on the left as mands
69
The tacts and mands in this study were not “pure” tacts and mands
When training and testing tacts, the Es placed objects on the right or on the left and asked:Where is the [dog, flower, car]?Because of that, the tact was really a part tact, part IV
When training and testing mands, the Es askedWhere do you want me to put the [dog, flower, car]?Again, because of the question, the mand was really part mand, part IV
70
(last slide on this – next slide, Loftus)
Elizabeth F. Loftus (2003), American Psychologist
71
Nothing from this article will be on the exam The article demonstrates how easily our memories
become “make-believe” Below are some of the general results of her work
Eyewitness testimony – it is very easy to influence what a person “remembers” after seeing a crime or an accident
Planting false memories – it is also easy to create a memory for an event that never happened; even very implausible events like witnessing the demonic possession of a child can be “planted”
Rich false memories – individuals create details and embellish events that never happened; that is they don’t just repeat or “remember” the false memory that was planted
People act on those false memories - people believe them and even change their nonverbal behavior to be consistent with the false memory
72
(I included it because it is fascinating work you should know about and is highly relevant to our analysis of verbal behavior, although Loftus does not talk about it that way; last point – they have already altered their verbal behavior)
Implications are far reaching False convictions based on (or at least partially on)
eyewitness testimony False indictments of individuals for sexual or
physical abuse based on “recovered memories” of victims
False indictments of individuals for sexual and physical abuse done during satanic rituals
Less dramatic, but nonetheless,▪ Changes in the way we behave toward certain people
based on our false memories of being insulted by them or something we falsely remember them doing that we found offensive
73
Loftus: Two things can affect memory Simple suggestion Plying the person with false feedback
More behaviorally: Altering the form of the verbal SDs that
control/evoke our intraverbal and echoic responses Reinforcing the intraverbal/echoic responses that
are emitted by the speaker, and shaping them through subtle forms of reinforcement▪ “Good, you remember that.”▪ “I know that must have been traumatic for you. Tell me more
about it”▪ A simple nod, eye contact, or smile▪ Note all of the above are forms of GSrs
74
Showed people videos of traffic accidents and then altered the questions she asked them The verbal SD of “Did you see the broken
headlight” led to more false reports of a broken headlight than did the verbal SD of “Was there a broken headlight?”
The verbal SD of “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other” led to higher estimates of speed than did “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
75
(it’s pretty easy to analyze, under ordinary circumstances, in a regular conversation, people don’t ask us if we saw the something if that something never happened-and In fact may provide mild punishment if we say no – what do you mean you didn’t see it?? second question is much more “neutral.”)
College students were given descriptions of events that had happened when they were young (put together by family members)
One event, being lost in a mall, was false 25% of the participants came to believe
they had indeed become lost in a mall for an extended period of time, were highly upset, and were ultimately rescued and returned to their family by an elderly individual
Many added embellishing details
76
Adults were led to believe that they had personally met Bugs Bunny at Disneyland 62% of those who believed this personal
encounter said they shook his hand 46% remembered hugging him Others remembered touching his ear or
tail, or hearing him say “What’s up Doc?”
77(led to believe Bugs had touched them inappropriately)
What is wrong with this?Why isn’t this even possible?
Bugs Bunny is a Warner Brothers cartoon character and----
“the wascally Warner Bros. Wabbit would be awwested on sight” at Disney
(Malcolm, 2003, Los Angeles Times)
78
Much of what we refer to as memory is verbal behavior (some is visual memory)
Our verbal behavior can be easily influenced by The verbal SDs that evoke and control our
intraverbals Reinforcement provided by the listener for what we
say Be careful – some of your memories may be
false And remember the memories of others may be
false, But in both cases they may be “honest lies”
79
(notice that we believe them to be true – we are not lying, they are, rather “honest” lies”)
THE END
80