Download - PSY295-001 Week 1
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Introductions
• Course
• Book
• Focus, goals
• Syllabus
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Study Group• Small study groups will be formed to maximize everyone’s
ability to not only succeed in this course but excel– will likely meet for about 1 hour a week. & 2 before exams– Participation in the study groups is voluntary – and is not required
• If you fall into any of the following categories then you should plan to meet in a study group: – have failed this class (or a similar one) in the past, – have had trouble in other classes at MSU, – suffer from intense math phobia/anxiety, – are concerned that you may not be able to pass this class for any reason, – have received an override due to a missing pre-requisite, or – just want to make sure you get all the help you can
• If any of these are true for you, please submit a sheet a paper with your Name, PID, and schedule of available times
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Extra Credit Possibilities
• Darrin’s study
• Others as the semester progresses
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Research, Statistics, and all that Mumbo-Jumbo
• Science—Theories—Research
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Science
• ??What is the purpose of science??
• Ultimate goal is to understand the world (mythology, religion)
• Uniqueness of Science is that it uses a standard process to examine the world.
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Theories
• Abstract ideas that explain the world (Freud, philosophy)
• Provide framework for inquiry and explanation
• Logic models
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Theory
• Thomas Kuhn and notion of scientific revolution
• Evidence gathered
• Anomalies grow until theory is changed
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Research
• Systematic inquiry to validate theories using scientific methods
• Hypotheses
• Ho—Ha
• Is there evidence to accept the alternative
• Empirical
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Theory and research
• Theory leads to research
• Research leads to theory
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Stages of Scientific Inquiry (theory influences all stages)
• Selection of topic and review of literature
• Formulation of research questions (hypotheses)
• Design of measurement procedures
• Design of sampling procedures
• Actual observation and collection of data from sample
• Analysis of the data and evaluation of research questions
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Role of Statistical Methods
• To understand the literature
• To understand the rationale underlying research in social and behavioral sciences
• To carry out social and behavioral research leading to decision-making
• To comprehend the everyday use of statistical information
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Statistics and Science• Descriptive statistics
• Characterize, organize, and present phenomena of interest• Examples are frequencies and correlations
• Inferential statistics• Populations and Samples
– The predicament of Frito Lay– Polling procedures
• Inference– Determination of Cause and Effect– Differences due to context
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Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
• Descriptive statistics allow scientists to form hypotheses about the nature of phenomena – Description may not represent relationship
“Correlation is not causation”
• Inferential statistics allow scientists to make generalizations and identify limitations– Inferential statistics used to assess the risk of
making causal statements
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TYPES OF STUDIES
• Descriptive/correlational
• Inferential/empirical
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Math Review
• Symbols• Signed numbers• Order of operations• Fractions
• Factorials • Exponents• Square roots• Statistical Notation &
Summation Sign
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Symbols
• Addition +• Subtraction -• Multiplication X• Division /
• greater than >• less than <• greater than or equal to ≥ • less than or equal to ≤• not equal to ≠• absolute value | x |
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Signed numbers
• Think of the number line
• Adding signed numbers
• Subtracting signed numbers
• Multiplication and division with signed numbers
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Exponents
• Base Number and exponent
– For example, 204 “twenty to the fourth power”
– Exponents of 2 are squares, of 3 are cubed
• Base numbers with 0 or 1 as exponent• Exponents with multiple terms• Negative base numbers• Parentheses• Fractions
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Square roots
• The square root of a number is the inverse of raising that number to the second power
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Order of operations
• Parentheses or terms
• Calculate any exponents or roots
• Compute any multiplication or division
• Perform any addition or subtraction between terms
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Fractions
• Addition/subtraction
• Multiplication/division
• Reduction
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Notation
• Variable names– X and Y
• Individual values
• X versus Xi
• N• Constants
• Summation notation X X2
– (X)2
XY X Y
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Ways to Study Psychological Processes
• Schumacher 1977ExperienceFocus of
ObservationInner Outer
Self 1 2
Others 3 4
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Ways to Study Psychological Processes
1.What I know about myself (introspection)
2.What others know about me
3.What others know about themselves
4.What ONE knows about others--general approach in Psychology, Education, Human Development, etc.
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Methods of Data Collection
• Observations (checklists, test, questionnaires
• Introspective methods (diaries, journals, letters
• Speculations (theory)
• Simulations (theory)
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Approaches to Behavior Description
• Empiricism: theory -- empirical evidence
• Constructivism: theory -- realization of predicted events
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Three Basic Research Designs
• Naturalistic Observation
• Simulation
• Experiment
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Naturalistic Observation
• Non-interference (unobtrusive)
• focus on invariant patterns of constancy and change
• applied when there is only limited knowledge
• Produces descriptive statements
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Simulation
• Exact and concrete formulation of assumed processes
• mathematics, logic, computer programs, etc.
• deterministic and probabilistic
• used when • solid amount of information available
• explicit formulation of models
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Experiment
• Hypothesis-driven: need a set of properly stated expectations
• operational definitions
• dependent vs. independent variables
• confounded variables controlled/avoided
• can be exploratory or testing of specific hypotheses
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The Language of Statistics
• Population: the universe of what is being studied
• Sample: a subgroup of population based on various procedures (probabilistic & non-probabilistic)
• Statistic: characteristic of a sample
• Parameter: characteristic of a population
• Sampling Error: amount of mismatch between sample and population
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Variables and constants
• Independent
• Dependent
• Intervening
• Discrete and continuous
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Measurement
• Datum and data
• Levels of measurement
• Discrete and continuous
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Discrete variables
• Categories
• Mutually exclusive
• Exhaustive
• Coding scheme
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Continuous variables
• Continuous variables have infinite possibilities
• When we use a number for a continuous variable it actually represents an interval with a– Lower real limit– Upper real limit
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Types of Analyses
• Univariate
• bivariate
• multivariate
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Measurement Scales 1
• Nominal– Minimum of 2 categories– No order or magnitude in categories
• Ordinal– Minimum of 2 categories– Ranked or ordered by degree of the trait
measured
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Measurement Scales 2
• Interval– Values—standard units– Do not have an absolute zero
• Ratio – Values—standard units – Have an absolute zero
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Sampling procedures
• Hawthorne effect, Eisenberg principle
• Sample and Sampling (idea is to represent the population
• Probabilistic - simple random
• Nonprobability sampling – availability, convenience, judgement