Download - Professional Ethics Class Notes Set 1 and 2
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PROFESSIONAL ETHICS & HUMAN VALUES
2 MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
UNIT - I
1. What are human values?
Values decide the standard of behavior. Some universally
accepted values are freedom jusce and equality.Other principles of values are love, care, honesty,
integrity, self-respect.
2. What are ethical values?
Trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring is
ethical values
3. Disnguish values from ethics and culture.
Values are mainly related to individuals and since they
are related to jusce, they remain the same for
everyone. E.g. truth, honesty, empathy, self-respect.
Values do not change from individual to individual. Ethics
is common to a group of individuals; the group may be
religious or professional. Ethics is mostly based on some
code or law and judgment of any acon is based on
code of conduct or law. Ethics change from individual to
individual Culture commonly refers to conduct of a
group. E.g. system of worship, marriage it may dier
from society to society, naon to naon or religion to
religion.
4. What is integrity?
Integrity is the unity of character based on moral values.
Consistency in atudes, emoons and conduct in
relaons to morally jused acons and values are also
the part of integrity of individual. It implies honesty,
trustworthiness.
5. Dene work ethics
By ones work one cannot harm others. Any worker
cannot escape accountability. Worker has the moral
responsibility to see that no other persons right, private
or freedom is impaired or transgressed.
6. What is service learning?
Service learning tells that one has moral responsibility to
increase the desirable eects and to decrease the
harmful eects. Any service should increase the
desirable result.
7. Menon some civic virtues?
Good cizen demand civic virtue. It is the principle of not
harming the surroundings .it also includes living
peacefully, respect for others, protecng the
environment and being normally and ethically good.
8. Write short notes on caring and sharing.
Caring is the essence of moral life. Caring involves
feelings, relaonship, contends with other persons and
protecng others and causing least damage to others.
Sharing means sharing of feelings, ideas thoughts,
resources and prots. Sharing is always mutually
benecial. Sharing morally acceptable feelings, resources
and materials is a value.
9. Write notes on honesty.
Any human being should imbibe honesty-honesty in acts,
honesty in speech and honesty in beliefs. Honesty is
the fundamental virtue in human relaonship even
though in may be dicult to follow some mes.
10. What is courage as a value?
Courage implies self-respect and governs confrontaons
with danger and risk. It is not excessive rashes or
cowardice, but it is the middle ground. Taking calculated
risks and boldness in facing crises are the hallmarks of
courage as a human value. It denes the mental
makeup of an individual in taking bold decisions even
under adverse situaons.
11. Dene co-operaon.
Co-operaon means extending help to others, for a good
cause. Co-operaon may be through an idea, a
suggeson, an assistance or physical work which extends
to others for common benet.
12. Dene empathy.
Empathy means pung self in a posion of someone
else and thinking as the later and reasoning suitable
acon.
13. Dene spirituality.
Spirituality raises a man above the materialisc world
into a realm where he seeks peace and real happiness.
14. Dene Integrity?
Integrity is the bridge between responsibility in private
and professional life.
15. Dene Compromise?
In a negave sense it means to undetermined integrity
by violang ones fundamental moral principles. In a
posive sense, however, it means to sele d ierences by
mutual concessions or to reconcile conicts through
adjustments in atude and conduct.
16. Give the two aspects of Honesty?
Truthfulness meeng responsibilies concerning truth-
telling. Trustworthiness Meeng responsibilies
concerning trust.
17. Dierenate Self-respect and Self-esteem?
Self-respect: It is a moral concept; refers to the virtue
properly valuing oneself. Self-esteem: It is a
psychological concept; means having a posive atude
toward oneself, even if the atude is excessive or
otherwise unwarranted.
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The Story of a Carpenter
An elderly carpenter was ready to rere. He told his
employer-contractor of his plans to leave the house-
building business and live a more leisurely life with his
wife enjoying his extended family.
He would miss his paycheck, but he needed to rere.
They could get by. The contractor was sorry to see his
good worker go and asked if he could bui ld just one
more house as a personal favor.
The carpenter said yes, but in me it was easy to see that
his heart was not in his work. He resorted to shoddy
workmanship and used inferior materials. It was an
unfortunate way to end his career.
When the carpenter nished his work and the bui lder
came to inspect the house, the contractor handed over
the house key to the carpenter. This is your house, he
said, It is my parng gi to you.
What a shock! What a Shame! If only he had known he
was building his own house, he would have done it all so
dierently. Now he had to live in the home he built none
too well.
(Modied from LIVING WITH HONOUR by SHIV KHERA)
- Do we nd ourselves in similar situaons as thecarpenter?
- Moving through our work hours fast paced, driven toget the job done, without much thought to moral
values.
- How do we regain our focus as individuals andorganizaons?
- This is the challenge for the employee and theemployer.
- Ethics are fundamental standards of conduct bywhich we work as a professional.
VALUES
Values are individual in nature.
Values are comprised of personal concepts ofresponsibility, entlement and respect.
Values are shaped by personal experience, maychange over the span of a lifeme and may be
inuenced by lessons learned.
Values may vary according to an individuals cultural,ethnic and/or faith based background. Never
change your core values.
In spite of all the change around you, decide uponwhat you will never change: your core values.
Take your me to decide what they are but once youdo, do not compromise on them for any reason.
Integrity is one such value.
MORALS
Morals are guiding principles that every cizenshould hold.
Morals are foundaonal concepts dened on bothan individual and societal level.
At the most basic level, morals are the knowledge ofthe dierence between right and wrong.
PERSONAL ETHICS
Simply put, all individuals are morally autonomousbeings with the power and right to choose their
values, but it does not follow that all choices and all
value systems have an equal claim to be called
ethical.
Acons and beliefs inconsistent with the Six Pillars ofCharacter -trustworthiness, respect, responsibility,
fairness, caring and cizenship - are simply not
ethical.
PERSONAL ETHICS - everyday examples
Soware piracy
Expense account padding
Copying of homework or tests
Income taxes
Borrowing nuts and bolts, oce supplies from
employer
Copying of Videos or CDs
Plagiarism
Using the copy machine at work
RELIGION AND ETHICS
The Golden Rule is a basic tenet in almost all
religions: Chrisan, Hindu, Jewish, Confucian, Buddhist,
Muslim.
Do unto others as you would have others do unto
you.
Treat others as you would like them to treat you
(Chrisan).
Hurt not others with that which pains you (Buddhist)
What is hateful to yourself do not do to your fellow
men (Judaism)
No man is a true believer unless he desires for his
brother that which he desires for himself (Islam)
MORALITY AND ETHICS
Concerns the goodness of voluntary human conductthat aects the self or other living things
Morality (Lan mores) usually refers to any aspect ofhuman acon
Ethics (Greek ethos) commonly refers only toprofessional behavior
Ethics consist of the applicaon of fundamentalmoral principles and reect our dedicaon to fair
treatment of each other, and of society as a whole.
An individuals own values can result in acceptanceor rejecon of society s ethical standards because
even thoughully developed ethical rules can
conict with individual values.
ASPECTS OF ETHICS
There are two aspects to ethics:
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1. The rst involves the ability to discern right fromwrong, good from evil and propriety from
impropriety.
2. The second involves the commitment to dowhat is right, good and proper.
Ethics entails acon.
An ALGEBRA course will teach you ALGEBRA. A HISTORY course will teach you HISTORY. A MANAGEMENT course will teach you principles of
MANAGEMENT.
But, Will an ETHICS course teach you to be ETHICAL? Think!
UNIT - II
1. Dene Ethics?
* Study of right or wrong. * Good and evil. *
Obligaons & rights. * Jusce. * Social & Polical
deals.
2. Dene Engineering Ethics?
* Study of the moral issues and decisions confronng
individuals and organizaons engaged in engineering /
profession.
* Study of related quesons about the moral ideals,
character, policies and relaonships of people and
corporaons involved in technological acvity.
* Moral standards / values and system of morals.
3. What is the need to study Ethics?
* To responsibly confront moral issues raised by
technological acvity.
* To recognize and resolve moral dilemma.
* To achieve moral autonomy.
4. Dierenate Moral and Ethics?
MORAL:
Refers only to personal behavior.
Refers to any aspect of human acon.
Social convenons about right or wrong
conduct.
ETHICS:
Involves dening, analyzing, evaluang and
resolving moral problems and developing
moral criteria to guide human behavior.
Crical reecon on what one does and why
one does it.
Refers only to professional behavior.
5. What is the method used to solve an Ethical problem?
Recognizing a problem or its need. Gathering informaon and dening the problem
to be solved or goal to be achieved.
Generang alternave soluons or methods toachieve the goal.
Evaluate benets and costs of alternatesoluons.
Decision making & opmizaon. Implemenng the best soluon.
6. What are the Senses of Engineering Ethics?
O An acvity and area of inqu iry.
O Ethical problems, issues and controversies.
O Parcular set of beliefs, atudes and habits.
O Morally correct.
7. Dierenate Micro-ethics and Macro-ethics?
Micro-ethics: Deals about some typical and everydayproblems which play an important role in the eld
of engineering and in t he profession of an engineer.
Macro-ethics: Deals with all the societal problemswhich are unknown and suddenly burst out on a
regional or naonal level.
8. What are the three types of Inquiry?
Normave
Inquiry Based on values.
Conceptual
Inquiry Based on meaning.
Factual
Inquiry Based in facts.
9. What are the sorts of complexity and murkiness that
may be involved in moral situaons?
Vagueness
Conicng reasons
Disagreement
10. What are the steps in confronng Moral Dilemmas?
Idenfy the relevant moral factors and reasons. Gather all available facts that are pernent to the
moral factors involved.
Rank the moral consideraons in order ofimportance as they apply to the situaon.
Consider alternave courses of acons as ways ofresolving dilemma, tracing the full implicaons of
each. Get suggesons and alternave perspecves on the
dilemma.
By weighing all the relevant moral factors andreasons in light of the facts, produce a reasoned
judgment.
11. Dene Moral Autonomy?
Self-determining Independent Personal Involvement Exercised based on the moral concern for other
people and recognion of good moral reasons
12. Give the importance of Lawrence Kohlbergs and
Carol Gilligans theory?
Kohlberg gives greater emphasis to recognizingrights and abstract universal rules.
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Gilligan stresses the importance of maintainingpersonal relaonships based on mutual caring.
13. Give the need for Authority?
Authority provides the framework in which learning can
take place.
14. What are the criteria required for a Profession?
O Knowledge
O Organizaon
O Public Good
15. Give the general criteria to become a Professional
engineer?
Aaining standards of achievement in educaon, jobperformance or relavity in engineering that
disnguish engineers from engineering technicians
and technologists.
Accepng as part of their professional obligaons asleast the most basic moral responsibilies to the
public as well as to their employers, clients,
colleagues and subordinates.
16. Dene Integrity?
Integrity is the bridge between responsibility in private
and professional life.
17. Dene Compromise?
In a negave sense it means to undeterminedintegrity by violang ones fundamental moral
principles.
In a posive sense, however, it means to seledierences by mutual concessions or to reconcile
conicts through adjustments in atude and
conduct.
18. Give the two aspects of Honesty?
O Truthfulness meeng responsibilies
concerning truth-telling.
O Trustworthiness Meeng responsibilies
concerning trust.
19. Dierenate Self-respect and Self-esteem?
Self-respect: It is a moral concept; refers to thevirtue properly valuing oneself.
Self-esteem: It is a psychological concept; meanshaving a posive atude toward oneself, even if the
atude is excessive or otherwise unwarranted.
20. What are the two forms of Self-respect?
a. Recognion self-respect
b. Appraisal self-respect
21. What are the senses of Responsibility?
A. a virtue
B. obligaons
C. general moral capacies of people
D. liabilies and accountability for acons
E. blameworthiness or praiseworthiness
22. When will you tell an Act as an involuntary one?
* Act done in ignorance
* Act performed under compulsion
23. What are the types of Theories about Morality?
O Virtue ethics Virtues and vices
O Ulitarianism Most good for the most people
O Duty ethics Dues to respect people
O Rights ethics Human rights
24. Dierenate Hypothecal imperaves and Moral
imperaves?
Hypothecal imperaves are based on some condions
whereas Moral imperaves wont based on some
condion.
25. State Rawls principles?
(1) Each person is entled to the most extensive amount
of liberty compable with an
Equal amount for others.
(2) Dierences in social power and economic benets
are jused only when they are likely to benet
everyone, including members of the most disadvantaged
groups.
26. Give the various tests required to evaluate the Ethical
Theories?
O Theory must be clear, and formulated with concepts
that are coherent and applicable.
O It must be internally consistent in that none of its
tenets contradicts any other.
O Neither the theory nor its defense can rely upon false
informaon.
O It must be suciently comprehensive to provide
guidance in specic situaons of interests to us.
O It must be compable with our most carefully
considered moral convicons about concrete situaons.
27. Give the drawbacks of Ulitarianism?
O Somemes what is best for the community as a whole
is bad for certain individuals in the community.
O It is oen impossible to know in advance which
decision will lead to the most good.
28. Give the drawback of Duty Ethics?
Duty ethics does not always lead to a soluon which
maximizes the public good.
29. Give the drawbacks of Rights Ethics?
How do we priorize the rights of dierent individuals? It oen promotes the rights of individuals at the
expense of large groups / society.
30. Dierenate Ethical Relavism and Ethical Egoism?
Ethical egoism the view that right acon consist inproducing ones own good.
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Ethical relavism the view that right acon ismerely what the law and customs of ones society
require.
31. Dene Ethical Pluralism?
Ethical pluralism is the view that there may be
alternave moral perspecves that are reasonable, but
no one of which must be accepted completely by all
raonal and morally concerned persons.
32. Dene Religion?
A religion is any set of arcles of faith together withthe observances, atudes,
Obligaons and feelings ed up therewith, which, inso far as it is inuenal in a person, tends to perform
two funcons, one social and the other personal.
33. Give the uses of Ethical Theories?
O In understanding moral dilemmas
O Jusfying professional obligaons and ideals
O Relang ordinary and professional morality
34. What are personal ethics and business ethics?
Personal ethics deals with how we treat others inour day- to- day lives.
Business ethics deals with the desired norms ofbehavior that pertain to commercial transacons.
35. What do you mean by normave ethics?
Normave ethics deals with the professional codes of
ethics that specify role norms or ob ligaons that
professions aempt to enforce. It is the
recommendaons of standards and guidelines for
morally right or good behavior.
36. What is descripve ethics or non-normave ethics?
Descripve ethics deals with the factual invesgaon of
moral behavior and beliefs i.e.., the study not of what
people ought to do but how they reason and how they
act.
37. Menon some universally accepted ethical principles.
Honesty
Integrity
Fullling commitments
Abiding by agreements in both leer and spirit
Willing to admit mistakes
Being caring and compassionate
Having respect for human dignity
38. What do you mean by ethical subjecvism?
Ethical subjecvism argues that what is ethically right or
wrong for the individual depends on the ethical
principles he/she has chosen. In other words, for people
who subscribe to ethical subjecvism what is ethically
right or wrong is enrely a personnel maer?
39. What are the steps in confronng moral dilemmas?
Idenfy the relevant moral factors and reasons. Gather all available facts that are pernent to the
moral factors involved.
Rank the moral consideraons in order ofimportance as they apply to the situaon.
Consider alternave course of acon as ways ofresolving the dilemma, tracing the full implicaons
of each.
Talk with the colleagues seeking their suggesonsand alternave perspecves on the di lemma.
Arrive at a carefully reasoned judgment by weighingall the relevant factors and reasons in light of the
facts.
40. What is tacit-ethic and Meta -ethics?
Tacit ethic deals with the unsaid or unspoken rule of
pracce.
Meta-ethics deals with theories about ethics.
41. What is moral autonomy?
Moral autonomy can be viewed as the skill and habit of
thinking raonally about ethical issues on the basis of
moral concern.
42. What do you mean by a sociopath?
Sociopath lack a sense of moral concern and guilt, and
can never be morally autonomous no maer how
independent their intellectual reasoning about ethics
maybe.
43. What are the aributes to a profession?
The aributes to a profession are:
Knowledge Organizaon Public good
44. What are the two models of a professional society?
The two models of a professional society are:
Social contract model, Business model
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Technology can have no legimacy unless it inicts no
harm-Adm.H.G. Rickover, father of the US nuclear navy.
What does Adm. Rickover mean by this?
Should engineers avoid technology that has the
potenal for inicng harm on a society or its members?
Engineers have an ethical and social responsibility to
themselves, their clients and society.
Praccally (although there is much debate about this),
engineering ethics is about balancing cost, schedule, and
risk.
ENGINEERING ETHICS is:
The study of moral issues and decisions confronng
individuals and organizaons involved in engineering and
The study of related quesons about moral ideals,
character, policies and relaonships of people and
organizaons involved in technological acvity.
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TRAINING IN PREVENTIVE ETHICS
Smulang the moral imaginaon
Recognizing ethical issues
Developing analycal skills
Elicing a sense of responsibility
Tolerang disagreement and ambiguity
IMPEDIMENTS TO RESPONSIBILITY
Self-interest.
Fear.
Self-decepon.
Ignorance.
Egocentric tendencies.
Microscopic vision.
Groupthink.
QUESTIONABLE ENGINEERING PRACTICES
Trimming smoothing of irregularies to make data
look extremely accurate and precise
Cooking retaining only those results that t the
theory and discarding others.
Forging invenng some or all o f the research data
Plagiarism misappropriang intellectual property.
Conicts of interest (such as accepng gis.)
Actual
Potenal
Apparent
CLEARLY WRONG ENGINEERING PRACTICES
Lying
Deliberate decepon
Withholding informaon
Failing to adequately promote the disseminaon of
informaon
Failure to seek out the truth
Revealing condenal or proprietary informaon
Allowing ones judgment to be corrupted.
SENSES OF EXPRESSION OF ENGG. ETHICS
Ethics is an acvity and area of inquiry. It is theacvity of understanding moral values, resolving
moral issues and the area of study resulng from
that acvity.
When we speak of ethical problems, issues andcontroversies, we mean to disnguish them from
non-moral problems.
Ethics is used to refer to the parcular set of beliefs,atudes and habits that a person or group displays
concerning moralies.
Ethics and its grammacal variants can be used assynonyms for morally correct.
VARIETIES or APPROACHES OF MORAL ISSUES
MICRO-ETHICS emphasizes typically everydayproblems that can take on signicant
proporons in an engineers life or enre
engineering oce.
MACRO-ETHICS addresses societal problemsthat are oen shunted aside and are not
addressed unl they unexpectedly resurface on
a regional or naonal scale.
MORAL PROBLEMS IN ENGINEERING - SOME EXAMPLES
4.1. An inspector discovered faulty construcon
equipment and applied a violaon tag, prevenng its
use. The supervisor, a construcon manager viewed the
case as a minor abrasion of the safety regulaons and
ordered the removal of the tag to speed up the project.
When the inspector objected to this, he was threatened
with disciplinary acon.
4.2. An electric ulity company applied for a permit to
operate a nuclear power plant. The licensing agency was
interested in knowing what emergency measures had
been established for humans safety in case of reactor
malfunconing. The ulity engineers described the alarm
system and arrangements with local hospitals for
treatment. They did not emphasize that this measures
applied to plant personnel only and that they had no
plans for the surrounding populaon. When enquired
about their omission, they said it was not their
responsibility.
4.3. A chemical plant dumped wastes in a landll.
Hazardous substances found their way into the
underground water table. The plants engineers were
aware of the situaon but did not change the method of
disposal because their competors did it the same cheap
way, and no law explicitly forbade the pracce.
4.4. Electronics Company ABC geared up for producon
of its own version of a popular new item. The product
was not yet ready for sale, but even so, pictures and
impressive specicaons appeared in adversements.
Prospecve customers were led to believe that it was
available o the shelf and were drawn away from
compeng lines.
TYPES OF INQUIRIES
1. NORMATIVE INQUIRY
These are about what ought to be and what is good.
These quesons idenfy and also jusfy the morally
desirable norms or standards.
Some of the quesons are:
A. How far engineers are obligated to protect public
safety in given situaons?
B. When should engineers start whistle blowing ondangerous pracces of their employers?
C. Whose values are primary in taking a moral decision,
employee, public or govt?
D. Why are engineers obligated to protect public safety?
E. When is govt jused in interfering on such issues and
why?
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2. CONCEPTUAL INQUIRY:
These quesons should lead to claricaons on
concepts, principles and issues in ethics. Examples are:
A) What is SAFETY and how is it related to RISK
B) Protect the safety, health and welfare of public-
What does this statement mean?
C) What is a bribe?
D) What is a profession and who are professionals?
3. FACTUAL (DESCRIPTIVE) INQUIRIES
These are inquiries used to uncover informaon using
scienc techniques. These inquiries get to informaon
about business realies, history of engineering
profession, procedures used in assessment of risks and
engineers psychology.
Why study ENGINEERING ETHICS
ENGINEERING ETHICS is a means to increase the ability
of concerned engineers, managers, cizens and others to
responsibly confront moral issues raised by technological
acvies.
MORAL DILEMMMA
There are three types of complexies.
VAGUENESS: This complexity arises due to the factthat it is not clear to individuals as to which moral
consideraons or principles apply to their situaon.
CONFLICTING REASONS: Even when it is perfectlyclear as to which moral principle is applicable to
ones situaon, there could develop a situaon
where in two or more clearly applicable moral
principles come into conict.
DISAGREEMENT: Individuals and groups maydisagree how to interpret, apply and balance moral
reasons in parcular situaons.
Steps in confronng MORAL DILEMMAS:
i) Idenfy the relevant moral factors and reasons.
ii) Gather all available facts that are pernent to the
moral factors involved.
iii) Rank the moral consideraons in the order of their
importance as they apply to the situaon.
iv) Consider alternave course of acon, tracing the full
implicaons of each, as ways of solving dilemma.
v) Talk with colleagues, seeking the suggesons and
perspecves of the dilemma.
vi) Arrive at a carefully reasoned judgment by weighing
all the relevant moral factors and reasons in light of facts.
All the above steps are disnct, even though they are
interrelated and can oen be taken jointly
MORAL AUTONOMY
This is viewed as the skill and habit of thinking
raonally about ethical issues on the basis of moral
concerns independently or by self-determinaon.
Autonomous individuals think for themselves and do
not assume that customs are always right.
They seek to reason and live by general principles.
Their movaon is to do what is morally reasonable for
its own sake, maintaining integrity, self-respect, and
respect for others.
One who breaks an unjust law must do so openly,
lovingly, and with a willingness to accept the penalty. I
submit that an individual who breaks a law that
conscience tells him is unjust and willingly accepts the
penalty is in reality expressing the highest respect for
the law.Rev. Marn Luther King, Jr. in Leer from a
Birmingham Jail, 1963.
A person becomes morally autonomous by improvingvarious praccal skills listed below;
i) Prociency is recognizing moral problems and issues in
engineering.
ii) Skill in comprehending, clarifying and crically
assessing arguments on opposing sides of moral issues.
iii) The ability to form consistent and comprehensive
viewpoints based upon consideraon of relevant facts.
iv) Awareness of alternate responses to issues and
creave soluons for praccal dicules.
v) Sensivity to genuine dicules and subtlees
vi) Increased precision in the use of a common ethical
language necessary to express and also defend ones
views adequately.
vii) Appreciaon of possibilies of using raonal dialogue
in resolving moral conicts and the need for tolerance of
dierences in perspecve among orally reasonable
people.
viii) A sense of importance of integrang ones
professional life and personal convicons i.e. maintaining
ones moral integrity.
KOHLBERGS THEORY-STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Pre-convenonal Level
Whatever benets oneself or avoids punishment. This is
the level of development of all young children. -Avoid
punishment & Gain Reward
Convenonal Level
Uncrical acceptance of ones family, group or society
are accepted as nal standard of morality. Most adults
do not mature beyond this stage.
1. Gain Approval & Avoid Disapproval & 2. Duty & Guilt
Post-convenonal Level
Movaon to do what is morally reasonable for its own
sake, rather than solely from ulterior moves, with also a
desire to maintain their moral integrity, self-respect and
the respect of other autonomous individuals. They are
Morally autonomous people.
1. Agreed upon rights & 2. Personal moral standards
GILLIGANS THEORYPre-convenonal Level
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This is the same as Kohlbergs rst level in that the
person is preoccupied with self-centered reasoning,
caring for the needs and desires of self.
Convenonal
Here the thinking is opposite in that, one is preoccupied
with not hurng others and a willingness to sacrice
ones own interests in order to help or nurture others (or
retain friendship).
Post-convenonal Level
Achieved through context-oriented reasoning, rather
than by applying abstract rules ranked in a hierarchy of
importance. Here the individual becomes able to strike a
reasoned balance between caring about other people
and pursuing ones own self-interest while exercising
ones rights.
Dierences between the TWO THEORIES
KOHLBERG GILLIGAN
Ethics of rules and rights Ethics of care
Studies based on well
educated, white males
only - tending male bias.
Studies included females
and colored People too.
Applicaon of abstract
rules ranked in the order of
importance
Applicaon of context-
oriented reasoning
Studies were hypothesized
for both
the genders even though
the study was conducted
mostly on males
Study was conducted on
both genders and it was
found, men based their
reasoning on jusce and
women based theirs on
care
HEINZS DILEMMA
The famous example used by Kohlberg was called
Heinzs dilemma. A woman living in Europe would die
of cancer unless she was given an expensive drug. Her
husband, Heinz, could not aord it. But the local
pharmacist, who had invented the drug at only one tenth
of the sale price refused to sell it to Heinz who could only
raise half the required money from borrowings.
Desperaon drives Heinz to break into the pharmacy and
steal the drug to save his wife. When respondents were
asked whether and why Heinz should or should not steal
a drug to save his wife from a li fe-threatening illness.
The responses of the individuals were compared with a
prototypical response of individuals at parcular stages
of moral reasoning.
Kohlberg noted that irrespecve of the level of the
individual the response could be same, but the reasoning
could be dierent. For example, if a child reasoning at a
preconvenonal level might say that it is not right to
steal because it is against law and someone might see
you.
At a convenonal level, an individual might argue that
it is not right to steal because it is against law and laws
are necessary for society to funcon.
At a postconvenonal level, one may argue that
stealing is wrong because is against law and it is immoral.
CONSENSUS AND CONTROVERSY
CONTROVERSY:
All individuals will not arrive at same verdict during
their exercising their moral autonomy.
Aristotle noted long ago that morality is not as precise
and clear-cut as arithmec.
Aim of teaching engg. ethics is not to get unanimous
conformity of outlook by indoctrinaon, authoritarian
and dogmac teaching, hypnosm or any other
technique but to improve promoon of tolerance in the
exercise of moral autonomy. CONSENSUS:
The conductor of a music orchestra has authority over
the musicians and his authority is respected by them by
consensus as otherwise the music performance will
suer. Hence the authority and autonomy are
compable.
On the other hand, tension arises between the needs for
autonomy and the need for concerns about authority.
The dierence between the two should be discussed
openly to resolve the issue to the common good.
PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONALISM
Engineers normally imagine that they are servants to
organizaons rather than a public guardian.
Responsibility to the public is essenal for a professional.
Who is a professional?
Obviously a member of a profession.
What is a profession?
JOB or OCCUPATION that meets the following criteria
from which a person earns his living.
Knowledge Exercise of skills, knowledge, judgment and
discreon requiring extensive formal criteria.
Organizaon - special bodies by members of the
profession to set standard codes of ethics,
Public good-The occupaon serves some important
public good indicated by a code of ethics.
Who is a professional engineer?
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Has a bachelors degree in engineering from an
accredited school
Performs engineering work
Is a registered and licensed Professional Engineer
Acts in a morally responsible way while praccing
engineering
Diering views on Professionals
Only consulng engineers who are basically
independent and have freedom from coercion can be
called as professionals. -Robert L.Whitelaw
Professionals have to meet the expectaons of clients
and employers. Professional restraints are to be imposed
by only laws and government regulaons and not by
personal conscience. -Samuel Florman
Engineers are professionals when;
1) They aain standards of achievement in educaon,job performance or creavity in engineering and
2) Accept the most basic moral responsibilies to thepublic as well as employers, clients, colleagues and
subordinates. -Mike Marn & Roland Schinzinger
MOTIVES FOR PROFESSIONALISM
A desire for interesng and challenging work and thepleasure in the act of changing the world.
The joy of creave eorts. Where a scienstsinterest is in discovering new technology, engineers
interest is derived from creavely solving praccal
problems.
The engineer shares the sciensts job inunderstanding the laws and riddles of the universe.
The sheer magnitude of the nature oceans, rivers,mountains and prairies leads engineers to build
engineering marvels like ships, bridges, tunnels, etc.,
which appeal to human passion.
The pleasure of being in the presence of machinesgenerang a comforng and absorbing sense of a
manageable, controlled and ordered world.
Strong sense of helping, of direcng eorts towardseasing the lot of ones fellows.
The main pleasure of the engineer will always be tocontribute to the well-being of his fellow-men.
MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERS
1. SAVIOR: The representave engineer is a savior who
will redeem society from poverty, ineciency, waste and
the drudgery of manual labour.
2. GUARDIAN: Engineers know, the direcons in which
and pace at which, technology should develop.
3. BUREAUCRATIC SERVANT: The engineer as the loyal
organizaon person uses special skills to solve problems.
4. SOCIAL SERVANT: Engineers, in co-operaon with
management, have the task of receiving societys
direcves and sasfying society s desires.
5. SOCIAL ENABLER AND CATALYST: Engineers play a vital
role beyond mere compliance with orders. They help
management and society understand their own needs
and to make informed decisions.
6. GAME PLAYER: Engineers are neither servants nor
masters of anyone. They play by the economic game
rules that happen to be in eect at a given me.
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORIES
S.NO - TYPES - BASED ON
1 Virtue ethics - Virtues and vices
2 Ulitarianism - Most good for most people
3 Duty ethics - Dues to respect persons
4 Rights ethics - Human Rights
VIRTUE ETHICS
The unexamined life is not worth living.
(Socrates, 470-399 B.C.)
The happy life is thought to be virtuous; now a
virtuous life requires exeron and does not consist in
amusement. (Aristotle, 384-322 B.C.)
The Four Main Virtues Prudence (mind): to think about a moral problem
clearly and completely
Temperance (emoons): control aracon to posive
emoons
Fortude (emoons): control aversion for negave
emoons
Jusce (will): choose according to truth and fairness.
Virtue Ethics
Focuses on the type of person we should strive to be
Acons which reect good character traits (virtues) are
inherently right
Acons which reect bad character traits (vices) are
inherently wrong
Virtue ethics are ed more to the individual behavior
than to that of an organizaon (e.g. business,
government)
ARISTOTLE says that moral virtues are tendencies,
acquired through habit formaon, to reach a proper
balance between extremes in conduct, emoon, desire
and atude i.e. virtues are tendencies to nd the Golden
Mean between the extremes of too much and too lile.
Some of the virtues are dened using examples here:
Virtue Too much Too less
Courage Foolhardiness Cowardice
Truthfulness Revealing all in
violaon of tact and
condenality
Being secreve
or lacking in
candor
Generosity Wasng ones
resources
Being miserly
Friendliness Being annoyingly
eusive
Sulky or surly
(Golden mean between extremes)
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PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
Being morally responsible as a professional.
Most basic and comprehensive professional virtue.
Creaon of useful and safe technological products while
respecng the autonomy of clients and public, especially
in maers of risk taking.
This encompasses a wide variety of the more specic
virtues grouped as follows:
1. SELF DIRECTION VIRTUES:
Fundamental virtues in exercising our moral autonomy
and responsibility. e.g. self-understanding, humility, good
moral judgment, courage, self-discipline, perseverance,
commitments, self-respect and dignity
2. PUBLIC SPIRITED VIRTUES:
Focusing on the good of the clients and public aected
by the engineers work by not directly and intenonally
harming others i.e. non-malecence. Benecence, sense
of community, generosity are other virtues falling in this
category.
3. TEAMWORK VIRTUES:
Enables professionals to work successfully with others.
E.g. collegiality, cooperaveness, the ability to
communicate, respect for authority, loyalty to employers
and leadership qualies.
4. PROFICIENCY VIRTUES:
Mastery of ones cra that characterize good engineering
pracce e.g. competence, diligence, creavity, self-
renewal through connuous educaon.
MORAL INTEGRITY
Moral integrity is the unity of character on the basis of
moral concern, and especially on the basis of honesty.
The unity is consistency among our atudes, emoons
and conduct in relaon to jused moral values.
SELF-RESPECT
Valuing oneself in morally appropriate ways. Integral to nding meaning in ones life and work A pre-requisite for pursuing other moral ideals and
virtues.
Self-respect is a moral concept of properly valuingoneself but self-esteem is a psychological concept of
posive atude towards oneself.
Self-respect takes two forms.
1. Recognion self-respect is properly valuing
oneself because of ones inherent moral worth,
the same worth that every other human being
has.
2. Appraisal self-respect is properly valuing
ourselves according to how well we meet moral
standards and our personal ideals.
VARIOUS SENSES OF RESPONSIBILITY
Responsibility ascribed by i) virtue, ii) obligaons, iii)
general moral capacies of people, iv) liabilies and
accountability for acons and v) blameworthiness or
praiseworthiness.1. By virtue: A person is said to be a responsible person
when we ascribe a moral virtue to the person. We expect
that the person is regularly concerned to do the right
thing, is conscienous and diligent in meeng
obligaons. In this sense, professional responsibility is
the central virtue of engineers.
2. By obligaon: Moral responsibilies can be thought of
as obligaons or dues to perform morally right acts.
3. By general moral capacity: When we view a person as
a whole rather than one with respect to a specic area,
we are actually thinking about the acve capacity of the
person for knowing how to act in morally appropriate
ways e.g. the capacity of children grow as they mature
and learn.
4. By accountability: Responsibility also means being
accountable, answerable or liable to meet parcular
obligaons. The virtue of professional responsibility
implies a willingness to be accountable for ones conduct.
5. By being blameworthy: When accountability for a
wrongdoing is at issue, responsible becomes a synonym
for blameworthy. When right conduct is the issue, the
context is praiseworthiness.
CAUSAL AND LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Causal Responsibility: consists simply in being a cause of
some event. E.g. lightning as being responsible for a
house catching re.
Legal Responsibility: consists simply in being a cause for
harm that was so unlikely and also unforeseeable that no
moral responsibility is involved.
UTILITARIANISM
That which produces the maximum benet for thegreatest number of people (e.g. Democracy)
Tries to achieve a balance between the good and bad
consequences of an acon
Tries to maximize the well-being of society and
emphasizes what will provide the most benets to the
largest group of people
This method is fundamental to many types of
engineering analysis, including risk-benet analysis and
cost-benet analysis
Drawbacks:
Somemes what is best for the community as awhole is bad for certain individuals in the
community
It is oen impossible to know in advance whichdecision will lead to the most good
Organizing Principles to Resolving Ethical Issues
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Ulitarian thinking
A standard that promotes those individual acons or
rules that produce the greatest total amount of ulity to
those aected.
A code that enjoins engineers to promote the safety,
health, and welfare of the public.
What is ulity, though? Happiness?
Preference ulitarianism
promote those condions that allow each individual to
pursue happiness as he or she conceives it.
Two condions necessary for this: freedom and well-
being.
Praccally, for engineers, this advocates cost/benet
analyses.
Problems with Ulitarianism
Dicult to quanfy benets for ALL those aected.
Greatest good dicult to apply to an al l-inclusive
populaon.
Someone gets shaed approach jusesperpetrang injusce on individuals, i.e., someone gets
le out.
Three approaches:
1. Cost/benet quanable approach. Maximize
posive ulies (benets) against negave ulies
(costs).
2. Act ulitarian Will the course of acon produce
more good than any alternave course of acon that I
could take?
3. Rule ulitarian Would ulity be maximized if
everyone did the same thing in the same circumstances?
Adopon of commonly accepted rules.
1. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS:
Assess the available opons Assess the costs and benets of each opon for the
enre audience aected
Make the decision that is likely to result in thegreatest benet relave to cost.
2. ACT-UTILITARIANISM:
(Professed by John Stuart Mills)
Focuses on individual acons, rather than general rules.
An act is right if it is likely to produce the most good for
the most people involved in the parcular situaon.
Rules may be broken whenever doing so will produce the
most good in a specic situaon.
Happiness is the only intrinsic good and all others are
instrumental goods that serve as the means of
happiness.
3. RULE-UTILITARIANISM:
(Professed by Richard Brandt)
This regards moral values as primary.
We should follow the rules and avoid bribes, even when
those acts do not have the best consequences in a
parcular situaon, because the general pracce of
following rules and not bribing produce the most overall
good
Rules should be considered in sets called moral codes.
A moral code is jused when followed, would maximize
the public good more than alternave codes would.
DUTY ETHICS (Immanuel Kants view)
Contends that certain acts (or dues) should be
performed because they are inherently ethical such as:
be honest, keep promises, do not inict suerings on other people, be fair, make reparaon when you have been unfair, how gratude for kindness extended by others seek to improve own intelligence and character,
develop ones talents,
dont commit suicide.Dues, rather than good consequences, is fundamental.
Individuals who recognize their ethical dues will choose
ethically correct moral acons
These dues should meet Kants 3 condions i.e.
1. It should express respect for persons,
People deserve respect because they have capacityto be autonomous and for exercising goodwill.
Goodwill is the conscienous and honest eort to dowhat is right according to universal principles of
dues.
Moral moves and intenons play a prominent rolein duty ethics rather than ulitarianism.
2. It is a universal principle
Dues are binding on us only if they are applicable to
everyone. They must be universalisable.
3. It expresses command for autonomous moral agents.
Dues prescribe certain acons categorically, without
qualicaons or condions aached. Valid principles of
dues are Categorical Imperaves. They contrast with
non-moral commands called Hypothecal Imperaves
which are condional.
The above RESPECT for PERSONS
Drawback of Kants duty ethics: It has failed to be
sensive to how principles of duty can conict with each
other thereby creang Moral dilemmas.
Rawls Development on Kants Duty Ethics
Rawls argues that all raonal people would agree to
abide by two basic moral principles:
1. Each person is entled to the most extensive amount
of liberty compable with an equal amount for others
and
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2. Dierences in social power and economic benets are
jused only when they are likely to benet everyone,
including members of most disadvantaged groups.
RIGHTS ETHICS (JOHN LOCKE 1632-1704)
Everyone has inherent moral rights
Everyone has rights that arise from EXISTING (i.e. Right
to Life, maximum individual Liberty, and human Dignity
are Fundamental Rights).
Other rights arise as a Consequence.
Dues arise because people have rights, not vice versa.
Any act that violates an individuals moral rights is
ethically unacceptable.
Rights ethics was highly individualisc.
Rights are primarily entlements that prevent other
people from meddling in ones life. These are referred to
as Liberty Rights or Negave Rights that place dues on
other people not to interfere with ones life.e.g.
Individuals do not have rights to life because others have
dues not to kill them. Instead, possessing the right to
life is the reason why others ought not to kill them.
Drawbacks
How do we priorize the rights of dierent individuals?
Rights ethics oen promote the rights of individuals at
the expense of large groups/society
A.I.Meldens version of Rights Ethics
Human rights are inmately related to communiesof people.
This version is known as POSITIVE WELFARE RIGHTSand is dened as rights to community benets for
living a minimally decent human life.
EVALUATION OF ETHICAL THEORIES
We are basically not interested in which of the ethical
theories is the best. It is believed that there are areas in
which each theory complements others by how they
dier.
Procedure for General Evaluaon:
1. The theory must be clear and formulated with
concepts that are coherent and applicable.
2. It must be internally consistent in that none of its
tenets contradicts any other.
3. Neither the theory nor its defense can rely upon false
informaon.
4. It must be suciently comprehensive to provide
guidance in specic situaons of interest to us.
5. It must be compable with our most carefully
considered moral convicons about concrete situaons.
SELF-INTEREST AND ETHICAL EGOISM
Psychological Egoism -All of our acons can be reduced
to self-interest
We always do what we most want to do. e.g., a man
who helps others has chosen to do so, so he sees doing
it, is in his self-interest
We do what makes us feel good. e.g., a man who helps
others must get pleasure from doing it hence it is in hisself-interest
The Problem of Counter Examples
What about charity and pity?
These require the egoist to disnguish selsh and
unselsh acts from selsh and unselsh moves
Charity I enjoy showing my power
Pity I worry that it might happen to me
So again, doing these, we act from self-interest
Confusion over self-interest and selshness
Not all acons are done from selshness
Brushing my teeth (self-interested but not selsh)
Also confusion over self-interest and pleasure
Not all acons are done from self-interest
Smoking cigarees (pleasurable but not self-interested)
Self-interest = any interest the self has
What do all major Ethical Theories say about this?
All major theories acknowledge the importance of Self
Interest.
Ulitarian take into account ones own good as wellas others.
Duty ethics emphasizes dues to ourselves. Right ethicists talk about our rights to pursue our
own good.
Virtue ethicists emphasize the importance of self-respect.
But all these theories also emphasize that the pursuit of
self-interest must be balanced with our moral
responsibilies to others.
Ethical Egoism
A dierent view, which talks of morality as only the
pursuit of self interest
Self-interest is a raonal concern requiring
consideraon of ones long-term interests. E.g., taking
bribe may appear to serve ones self interest but it does
not serve the long-term interest of self. Hence taking
bribe is not acceptable since it would not do any good on
a long-term. This was professed by Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679) and Ayn Rand (1905-1982).
Ayn Rand with only one life to live, the individual is of
utmost importance
It is in ones self-interest to adopt the Moral Point of
View (Hobbes Social Contract)
CUSTOMS and ETHICAL RELATIVISM
Relavism:
Disncon between morals (treatment of others)
and mores (harmless customs)
Cultural (Descripve) Relavism:
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Factual Claims: x is considered right in society y at me
t and is considered wrong in society z at me t
Empirical Conclusion: Moralies are relave
This is either true or false (anthropology a study of
mankind, its customs, beliefs, etc. Can gure it out)
Normave (Ethical) Relavism:
Normave Claim: What is considered right insociety x at me t is right for that society
A parcular culture cannot be judged from outsideof that culture.
Ethical Relavism says that acons are morally rightwhen they are approved by law and custom.
They are wrong when they violate laws and custom. Ethical egoism tries to reduce moral reasons to
maers of self-interest, ethical relavism aempts
to reduce moral values to laws, convenons and
customs of parcular sociees.
Consequences of Normave Relavism
We cannot say other morals are inferior to our own
sociees
We decide the value of our acons based only on what
our parcular society thinks
We should show a lot of tolerance for dierent customs
and outlooks in a society in which we live in. It means
that customs can have moral signicance in deciding how
we should act. This view is calledethical pluralism.
Reasons for Acceptance of Ethical Relavism
The reasons professed for acceptance of ethical
relavism is threefold.
1. Laws seem so tangible and clear-cut. They provide a
public way ending seemingly endless disputes about
rights and wrongs. But many mes, moral reasons seem
to be at variance with laws e.g. apartheid laws.
2. Moral standards vary dramacally from one culture to
another. The only kind of objecvity possible is limited to
a given set of laws in a given society. Acknowledging this
relavity of morality encourages the virtue of tolerance
of dierences among sociees.
3. Moral judgments should be made in relaon to factors
that from case to case, usually making it impossible to
formulate rules which are simple. Customs and laws are
usually morally relevant factors that should be taken into
account.
RELIGION and DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS
Ethics and Religion: Moral issues and religious belief are
related in several posive ways.
First, they are shaped over me from the centralmoral values of major world religions.
Second, religious views oen support moralresponsibility by providing addional movaon for
being moral.
Third, somemes religions set a higher moralstandard than is convenonal.
Sociees oen benet from a variety of religionsthat make prominent parcular virtues, inspiring
their members to pursue them beyond what is
ordinarily seen as morally obligatory.
Divine Command Ethic:
This says that an act which is right is commanded bygod and the one which is wrong is forbidden by God.
The diculty in this i s to know precisely what Godscommands are and in knowing whether God exists.
We can view that moral reasons are not reducible toreligious maers, although religious belief may
provide an added inspiraon for responding to
them.