Download - PROBLEMS OF TRIBAL AGRICULTURE IN
PROBLEMS OF
TRIBAL AGRICULTURE IN .INOlA
Submitted to the UNIVERSITY OF POONA
in partial fulfilment o~· the requirements of the
· Master of Philosophy D~gree in Economics
by
JAGABANDHU SAMAL
Gokhale Institute· of Politics and Economics
- PUNE 411004
June, 1979
PROBLEMS OF TRIBAL AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
Submitted to the University ot Poona in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Master of Philosophy Degree in Economics
~·
Jagabandhu Samal
Gokhale Institute of Politics & Economics, Pune.
June, 1979.
CONTENTS
(i)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study, "Problems ot Tribal Agriculture in
India", was taken up under the able guidance ot Dr. Neela
kanth Rath, Joint Director, Gokhale Institute of Politics
and Economics. I am gratetul to him tor his Taluable
advice and constructive suggestions in preparation ot this
work.
I owe a lot to Miss F,K. Wadia, Ex-Director (E & M),
North Eastern Council Seoreteriat, Shillong and presently
at Indian School ot Political Economy, who was kind enough
to go through my earlier drafts pa~ently at the oost of
her precious time end givf! useful s•.tggestions.
I am grateful to the authorities ot Gokhale Insti
tute ot Politics and Eoonomios tor awarding me.a Teacher
Fellowsh~p under the U.G.C. Faoulty Improvement Programme.
I am equally grateful to the Management and Principal of . - . .
D.A.v. College, Koraput (Orissa) for granting me the nece
ssary leave for this period.
My special thanks ere due to the Staff of the
Servants of India Society Library for their co-operation
and help in providing me the necessary reading materi&l
required tor the preparation of this dissertation. I will be tailing in my duty, it I do not express my
thanks to Shri l4P. Limbore tor typing the dissertation neatly.
Gokhale Institute of Politics & Eoonomios, Pune 4. Jagabandhu Semel
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The tribal communities in India constitute almost 7 per
cent ot the total population ot the country. Aooording to
the 1971 Population Census, out ot a total population ot 548
million persons, the Scheduled Tribes constituted 38 million
persons, i.e. 6.9 per ~ent ot the total population ot the
country. (See Table I). An analysis ot the Table I reveals
that there ere nine states in the country having a concentra
tion ot tribal people. These are Madhya Pradesh (8.3 million),
Orissa (5.0 million), Bihar (4.9 million), Gujarat (3.7
million), Rajasthan (3,1 million), Meharashtra (3.0 million),
West Bengal (2.5 million), Assam (1.9 million), and Andhra
Pradesh ( 1. 7 million). There are, however, other states and
Union Territories where the bulk ot the population is tribal.
These include Mizoram (94. 25 per oent), Lakshadweep (92.9 ~er
per oent), Nagaland (8~.6 per cent), Dedra and Nagar Haveli
(86.9 per cent), Meghelaya (80.5 per cent), and Arunachal
Pradesh (79.0 per oent). Manipur and Tripura have also
sizable proportions ot tribal population i.e. 31.18 per cent
and 28,95 per cent respectively ot their total population.
1,2 The geographical distribution ot the Scheduled Tribes
in the country can be divided into three main categories,
viz.,
(i) those scattered over South-Western India in the hills
and converging lines ot the Western Ghats;
(ii) those occupying the central belt ot the older hills and
2
and plateau along the dividing line between Peninsular India
and the Indo·Gangetia .Plain;
(iii) those living in the North and North·Eastern Zone in . . . . . 1
the mountain valleys end Eastern Frontiers·of India •
. The ahareateristla features of these Tribes are their
isolation from the neighbouring areas,.living as they do in
the interior areas mainly in the hills and forests. Inede·
quete communication teailities in many ot these areas have
resulted in limited interaction with other population
pockets.
1,) Agriculture end forests occupy a prominent place in
the tribal lite end economy. This ohereoteristio has also
been revealed in the 1971 Census data. Of the working popu·
letion among the Scheduled Tribes 93 per cent were engaged
in sectors related to the exploitation of natural resources.
(See Table II). These occupations include cultivation, (57.6
per cent) agricultural labour (33 per cent), and allied
activities like livestock, forestry, fishery, plantation,
hunting eto. (2.4 per cent). Lend and resource uses among
the tribals differ in different parts or the country.
Communities like Onge, Jarawa and Sompen of Andaman and
Nioobar Islands are even.today dependant on hunting, fishing,
collecting wild roots and tubers. 2 Tribal communities
1, Report of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission (Dhebar Commission) 1961. P.S.
2. Pettneik N. - "Teehniques of Integrated Developmental Planning •••" • Integrated Tribal Dev. PlanningNICD- Hyderabad P.120. (1975).
3
ot Eastern India like Mlzo, Naga, Kuki, Khasi, Adi Garo,
etc,; Juang, Bhuinya and Bonde ot Orissa, and some ot the
tribes ot Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Maha
rashtra, Tamilnadu 1 Madhya Pradesh, eta., .depen,d upon a
primitive way ot "Slash end burn cultivation" or shifting
oultivation.3 This will be dealt in detail in Chapter 3 ot
this Dissertation. Settled terming, either of the wet or
dry type, is also the primary souroe ot livelihood tor a
large number ot tribal. communities. Some ot the tribes ot
Andaman and ··Nioobar Islands and ot Lakshadweep depend upon
plantation ot oooonuts and arecanuts. The tribal communities
living in the Western Hin~layan regions i.e. the Gaddis and
Gujjars ot Himachal Pradesh and the Bhots ot U,P, are more
dependent on animal husbandry than on agriculture tor their
livelihood. The nomadic tribes ot Rajasthan desert also earn
their livelihood by raising animals through migratory grazing.
The_Birhors ot Bihar and Orissa (called as the Makarakhiya
Kols in the latter place) depend upon trapping small game
and collecting plants and medical herbs,
1.4 The tri~al people reside both in the plains and the
hill areas. Although their economies differ, there ere cer
tain common features among them like, primitive terming
praotioes, high labour intensity and some traditional social
and cultural rigid! ties affecting their principal o.coupation-
J, Bose, S - "Agriculture in Tribal Sooiety" - Integrated Tribal Development Planning - NICD, Hyderabad - (1975).
egricul ture,
The ·plain tribels ere largely settled cultivators
with individual ownership ot lend, Like other smell end
marginal termers in the country,· they face the problems of
uneconomic end scattered holdings, land alienation and
tenancy sy~tems~ Tribal exploitation either in the form of
lend alienation, high rete of interest, low wage payments
or even market imperfections, are regarded as the major . .
problems teeing the plains tribals, Lack'of irrigation -
teoiilties is ·a common ohersoteristio in most ot the tribal
areas. BYv Programme with the adoption of improved tech
niques of production end fertiliser use, as well as institu
tional credit facilities ere yet to reach the tribal villages
end to be accepted by them,
The agricultural problems of the hill tribals are
somewhat ditterent from those of the plain tribels, The
"Shifting Cultivation" practised by the hill trlbals has
posed a number of problems - both tor the tribal economy end
the country as a whole, This is e very primitive and sub
sist~noe agriculture having much less carrying oepeoity on
lend, With the growth of tribal population, the pressure
on the lend is increasing end the oyole ot shifting cultiva
tion is decreasing, leading to further diminishing returns
on land. The problems like destruction of fores·ts, soil
erosion end floods in the plains are said to be the outcome
ot shifting cultivation,
As mentioned in en earlier paragraph, there ere some
tribes in u.P., Himaohal Pradesh end RaJasthan who ere
largely livestook raisers. Their problems ditter trom those
ot the hills end plains tri bale. The nomsdio tribes ot
RaJasthan, tor example, taoe problems ot sosroity ot grazing
lends, with arid lands ooming under oultivstion as a result
ot extension ot irrigation tsoilities in th~ desert areas.
Many ot them have given up oattle rearing 1n favour ot work
as landless 'labourers on these new farms.
In the ensuing seotions an attempt is made to disouss
the agrioultural problems ot the ·Gribals 1 and the measures
that have been taken or suggested to ~phold the eoonomy ot
the tribal population. In Chapter II 1 the sgrioultural
problems ot the plains-tribals and in Chapter III 1 that ot
the hills-tribals have been dealt with in detail. The dis
oussion will end in Chapter IV atter mentioning some ot the
suggested remedies in the field ot tribal agriculture.
6
CHAPTER II
TRIBAL AGRI CULTO'Hli: IN THE PLAINS
2.1 It is ditticult to give an accurate picture or the
nplains tribals" living in the country on the basis of a
strict «1efinition. The "Plains-tribalstt ·are generally re
ferred to the tribal population living in the plains outside· 1 the scheduled areas. The Excluded and Partially Excluded
.Areas ~ub-Committee. under the Chaiz:manship of Sri A. V. Thaker
defined plains-tribals as·those living outsice 'excluded' . . . 2
and 'partially excluded' areas. The Sub-Comro4ttee viewed
that although tribals living in the non-excluded areas are
otten hard to distinguish trom the plains people among whom
they live, they were generally in a backward condition, which
was sometimes worse than the condition or the Scheduled
Castes. Henoe tribes whether l'iving in the plains or in the
partially excluded tracts are treated as plains tribals.
Whl.le discussing the agricultural problems ot the plains
tribals, all tribal people who practise plains - cultivation
irrespective ot the fact as to whether they re~ide in or .
outside the scheduled areas have been considered.
1. Committee on Welfare of Soheduled Tribe:! (1977-78) - Fifth Legislative Assembly, Andhra Pre.desh - Second Report on Welfare of Scheduled Tribes in
Plain Areae.
2. The Sub-Committee on Excluded and Parlally Exoluded Areas (other than Assam) was appointed by the Constituent Ass~mbly.
7
2,2 The Eoonomy of the Pleins-Tribels
Like the greet maJority or rural ~eople in the oountry,
the economy or the plains tribals is predominantly eg~arian
in nature. The plains tribals cultivate small plots or land,
whioh is generally owned or taken on lease·· .A.· large propor- ·
tion work as labourers on other people's lands. The agricul
tural eoonomy_ot the plains-tribals represents subsistenoe
farming; due to the uneconomic size ot t~e holdings and the
primitive agricultural practices followed by them. In the
three states ot Madhya Pradesh, RaJasthan end Maharashtra,
the maJority ot the tribal holdings are about 2 hectares in
size; the holdings in Andhra Pradesh; Orissa, Bihar, West
Bengal and GuJarat are below 2 hectares.) A case study made
by SaroJ Kanti Choudhury in a Santal Village ot Bolpur P.s.
or West Bengal in February 1970, revealed that, out ot the
J1 cultivating terms in the village 45 terms were below the
viable economic holdings i.e. 5 acres or land.4 Another
important feature that was brought about by the study was
that out ot the tot~. operated land, leased land constituted·
almost 59 per cent, and this proportion was highest (i.e.
71.7S per cent) in the size group ot 2.51 ... s.oo acres, The
same study also indicated that out ot the total cultivating
terms in the village land owning cultivators constituted
). Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture ... (1976) Part XIII P.102.
4. Choudhury Saroj Kant! - Tribal Agriculture in the Plains -Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics- Vol.2S (1970).
39,22 per cent and the rest, 60,78 per oent, were tenants
or share croppers, Hence, the agricultural economy ot the
plains tribals 'not only sutters trom size disincentives,
but also from the tenurial disinoentives, The uneGonomio
holdings ot the farms, prim1~1~e f'arming practices, and
tenurial disincentives in the f'arm1ng sectors, keep the
tribal farmers under poverty, as a result of' which they are
af'f'eoted by other economic maladies like indebtedness, land
alienation etc,, leading to economic exploitation, An
attempt is made in the ensuing paragraphs to enalyse the
agro-economio problems of' the tribals - mostly residing in
the plains,
2,3 Agricultural Practices
The plains-tribals are mostly settled cultivators,
Their cropping pattern depends upon the nature of' the soil,
rainfall and availability of' irrigation facilities, As lack
ot irrigation facilities is a common f'eature in most ot the
tribal areas, the tribal cultivators have to resort to the
cultivation ot rain-ted crops. The cropping pattern is
therefore dependent upon the rainfall pattern; the bulk of'
the area being under mono-culture, The highest priority is
given to food grains'required tor subsistence. u~. Pawar
after a study of' some of' the sample tribal villages in the
Sabarkantha district ot Northern GuJarat, where dry f'arming
was practised in 75 per cent of' total cropped area, and about
25 per cent of oropped area was under irrigation, reported
that in the cropping pattern of' the tribal cultivators highest
9
highest priority was given to toodgrain crops like bajra,
maize, wheat etc. Commercial crops like ground nuts and
cotton had been given comparatively less importance.S ·An
All India pioture ot the wet cultivation based on irrigation
facilities in tribal areas is not available tor the present.
However some ot the data oompiled by Mr. I.P. Singh gives
the position ot irrigated areas in oase ot tribal districts
ot tive states6 (see Table III). The table reveals that the
percentage ot irrigated areas in case ot each ot the tribal . . . . .
districts is much lower than that ot the respective state
averages.
There are instances ot tribal areas where even though
irrigation facilities are available, the volume ot production
and ohange in cropping pattern could not show any encouraging
teatures due to small size ot holdings, lack ot investments
in agricultural implements, and inputs prevalence ot tenancy
system etc. In case ot the Santhal village ot Bolpur P.S.
referred to earlier, it was found that though more than 92
per oent ot the cultivated area ot the Tillage had irrigation
facilities, the productivity ot crops was 4 quintals per acre,
as against the Block average ot 6.1 quintals. There are, how
ever, instances where cropping pattern and productivity or
S. Pawar Jegannath Reo - Tribal Agriculture in Northern Gujarat - Agro-Economic Problems ot Tribal India (1972) - Edited by M.L. Patel.
6. Singh I.P. - Development ot Agriculture in Tribal Areas -Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics Vol.XXV No 3 1970. •
10
the tribal lands have improved where iand, seeds, implements
and inputs have been provided tO the farmers side by side
withthe provision.ot irrigation. In Srikakulam district
ot Andhra Pradesh, and Ganjam and . .Koraput districts ot
Orissa, the Tribal Development Agencies are gradually under
taking irrigation schemes through MIPs,·Litt·Irrigation and
wells. Added to the provision ot water, the Agencies are
supplying r~olaime~ ~ands tor cultivation, seeds, fertilisers
and pesticides etc. on subsidy basis tor a limited period. ' .
A comparative·study made by T.v.s.·Rao and N. Gopala Rae
between 197.3-74 (when the project was started), and 197S-76
in the above areas shows the range of differences in the
cropping pattern, production, and income between the bene
ficiaries and non-benetioiaries. The study reveals that
there is a perceptible shift in cropping pattern in favour
of high yielding varieties of paddy, wheat, and vegetables
on irrigated lands. The non-beneficiaries predominantly
raise pulses, ragi and paddy ot tribal varieties. The study
·further reveals that the beneficiaries under irrigation
schemes are able to earn a gross income ot Rs.1084.S5,
Rs.)10S.80, and Rs.1412.84 (per household) in the project
areas of Srikakulam, Koraput and. Ganjam districts, as
against the non-beneficiaries' 1noome ot Rs .. 891· .o6,
Rs.820.66 and Rs.792.47 in the respective districts. \.
1. Rae T.v.s. and Reo N. Gopala- Modernising the Farming System ot Hill Tribes - The Experience ot Tribal Development. Agencies in A.P. and Orissa- Agro-Economio Research Centre - Andhra Un1 versi ty Oooasional Paper - 1 o.,
11
Considerable changes have been brought about in.the
traditional agriculture during recent years involving use
ot modern. inputs. and new technology •. The benefits ot the
developmental ettorts have been confined largely to areas
and ·people v.i th developed resource base; The trib"al agri
culturists ere no less responsive than the non-tribal ones
to improved techniques ot cultivation. What is lacking is
exhaustive and dedillated extensionwork to orient the tradi
tional tribal termers towards better terming systems. The
success ot the programme in the tribal areas ot Srikakulam
(.A.P.) and Ganjam and .Koraput (Orissa) is en illustration.
Similarly, the success achieved by the Gujarat State Ferti
liser Company Ltd., under "Leap Forward Project" in some ot
the tribal Tillages o:t' Chhotaudepur Taluka (Gujarat) can
show some light .in ·the way. 1·7 .·Added· to the provision o:t' . - . . . .
modern inputs, like seeds, fertilisers and pesticides etc.,
at a subsidised rate tor a limited period ot time, the
scheme provided technical guidance and know-how right :t'rom
the selection ot tields upto harvesting ot crops to the
participant termers. The project was started in the year
1973-74~ and an evaluation study conducted in 197S-76 showed
that the per acre net income o:t' participants in the maize
tract covered by L.F. Project was Rs.11)).00, as against
that ot non~partioipants, Rs.117.00. In paddy treot, net
17. B.L. Kumar - Transforming Tribal Agriculture -Yojana - Vol.XXII/17, 1978.
12
returns obtained by the participants on L.F. plots was
Rs,522.00, as against a mer~ Rs.52,00 obtained by the non-
. participants from the same crop, There was also a gradual
increase tn proportionate area under commercial crops like
cotton and ve.getables etc, in the fields of tribal partici
pants,
2,4 Except tor a few oases o~ success in tribal agrioul-
ture with such comprehensive programmes ot.agricultural . ' .
development through governmental agencies, the tribal agri-. ' . . .
culture in ge~eral suffers from backward and traditional
methods of oul~ivation, Use ot te~tilisers, improved seeds,
pesticides and modern agricultural implements are seldom
evident among the tribal cultivators. Lack ot all these
tcoilities. along with uneconomic holdings, tenurial imper
fections, and dependence on monsoon, bring a very low yield . .
per acre in tribal lands when compared to that ot non-tribal
areas ot the country,
A comparative study with regard to the gross value ot
crops per acre in the tribal and non-tribal districts ot
Madhya Pradesh was made by I,P, Singh, The findings ot the
study as given in Table IV revealed that in comparison to
the non-tribal district ot Mandsaur, where the gross value
ot crops per sore was Rs,151,50, the per acre gross value ot
crops in tribal districts ot Jhabua, Khargone, end Dhar, were
Rs.1)1,)0, Rs,128,40 a~d Rs,1)8.90 respectively. Similarly,
compared to the non-tribal district ot Jabalpur, the gross
value. ot crops per acre in tribal districts ot Mandla and
1)
Shadel, and compared to the non-tribal district ot Raipur,
the gross Talues ot crops per acre in the tribal district
'ot Bastar, Durg, Raigarh and Surguja were muoh lower,
The backward nature and subsistence level ot terming
. haTe made the tribal termers' economy largely detioit,
Income trom the agric~ture is not sutticient tor the main
tenance ot a tribal tamily·tor the Whole year. An enquiry
made by the National Council ot Applied Economic Research . . . .
in the West Nimar area ot Madhya Pradesh revealed that the . . .
average annua~ (per household) tribal inc~me was Rs~1064,S2,
76 per cent or which i.e. Rs.8o6.67, was contributed by
agricultureS, 24 per oent ot the household income ot the
tribal was covered by other subsidiary incomes like collec
tion and sale ot torest_ products, working on others' terms
es oesual labour, periodic migration to other·areas tor work
ing as tarm iebourer end livestock raising to some extent,
The household expenditure per tribal tamily being Rs,1164.80,
there was a detla~ ot about Rs.100.00 in the cultivators'
budget. ·This detioit was covered by borrowing trom the money
lenders and traders, thus resulting in indebtedness.
2.; Indebtedness is a major problem ot the plains tribal
people, LiTing in a subsistence economy, the tribels go into
· debt mainly against the mortgage ot land. Loans are obtained
trom money lenders end traders at high rates or interest end
8, Singh I.P~ - Credit Requirements ot Tribal Cultivators in West Nimar ~istriots (M.P.)- Agro-Eoonomio Problems ot Tribal India -Edited by M,L, Patel, P,)1,
w1 th manipulation ot aooounts, ·Reports ot the study team:
ot Tribal DeTelopment Programmes with regard· to Koraput·dis
triot ot Orissa and in·the tribal areas ot Bihar revealed
that in Koraput district the money lenders charged usurious
rates ot interest yarying from 25 per cent to 1oo· per cent
per annum, and in Bihar it ranged even from 50 per oent to
250 per oent.9
On the ground of inability to repay the loans in
time, the tribal cultivator is otten oompelle~ to lo~e his
land and become the tenants ot their bondees or mortgagees,
or labourers~ Not only the ~ribal la~ds are alienated to
the non-tribal money-lenders, but also, in sane oases, the
tribal lands are alienated to some well-to-do tribal persons
on the same grounds. Where the land is not sufficient to
meet the requirements' the creditor makes an agreement either
oral or written, to get the services ot'the debtor till the
loan is repaid. The latter is oalled the system ot ~Bonded
Labour" whioh is largely prevalent in tribal areas. In
either.oase the tribal is exploited. Alienation ot tribal
lands as a oonsequenoe ot their indebtedness is a great
ebstaole to the eoonomio development ot tribal people and -:::::-
improvement ot their agr1oulture.-
The phenomenon ot the green revol~t1on, a continuous
process or· urbanisation, exploitation ot minerally rion
9. Report ot the Study Team on_Tribal Development Programmes, All India Committee on Plan ProJects - Planning Commi-ssion- 1966 (Bihar), 1969 (Orissa). .
areas, hydro-electricity proJects, requirement ot len~ tor
tactory sites, township, etc., have also resulted in demand
tor lands in triba.l areas. The value of tribal· lands has
also enhanced in recent years. In those areas where such
proJects are established, the tribals are easily dislodged
trom their land.
Over the years the percentage ot cultivators in the
tribal population has decreased trom 6g.15 per cent in 1961
to 57.6 per cent in 1971. On the other hand, the percentage
ot agricultural labourers have gone up tran 19.73 in 1961
to 33.0 in 1971. (See Table V). A view expressed by some
experts, "for the decline in the number of cultivators in
the tribal work torae during the lest decade, is that tribal
lands have been alienated to non-tribals.n10
2.6 The credit needs ot tribal termers are largely tor
unproductive purposes which include family consumption, end
provisions tor social, religious and other demands. A survey
ot indebtedness among tribels in Madhya Pradesh revealed that
as much as 60 per cent ot the total debt (3g per cent tor
domestic consumption and 22 per cent tor social, religious
and other requirements) were raised tor unproductive purposes.
(See Table VI). A report on tribals ot Andhra ~radesh men
tions, "various studies have shown that more than 60'per cent
ot loans taken by the tribals is tor consumption purposes.
10. Dubey end Ratan - Policy and Administrative Issues -Lend Alientation and Restoration in Tribal Communities in India- P.195.
16
Unless credit is provided tor their consumption needs, they 11
will continue to seek help from the mo,ney lenders." The
income·trom agrloulture being insu1'fioient-to maintain their
families, the tribals spend a large part ot the year tor
gathering torest produce or tor seeking employment elsewhere.
The people who ere at the starvation point cannot be expected
to spend their time tor improving the lend and environment -
a process which guaran~~es higher income in future. "Financ
ing consumption, therefore, becomes more important to
improve production oepaoity rather then financing production
itselt.n12
· • As regards the sources ot credits, the money lenders
end indigenous traders eta., proTide the major share of
oredit to the tribal peo~le. A survey undertaken in Parla
khemundi Agency Area (Orissa} reveals that the tribals
borrow 86.2 per cent ot the total loans from unauthorised
money lenders. (See Table VII). The co-operative societies
could meet only 5.S per oent ot the total needs_ of the
tribals-and 7.8 per cent was met by other governmental
agencies. In general, the tribals have not been able to get
muoh benefit from the institutional credit sources including
co-operative societies. The short-term credit ~equirements
11. A.K. Sharma - Andhra Pradesh, Land Alienation and ·Restoration in Tribal Communities ot India - Dubey end Reten- P.26.
12. s. Dasgupta - "Choice of Technology and its Implications" - Planning :B'or Tribal Development- Edited by R. Gupta.
17
ot the farmers tor the purpose of seeds, fertilisers, wages
ot labour, manure, hire of bullocks, repair ot implements,
etc. were expected to be met by the Primary Agricultural
co-operative Societies, However, as mentioned by the
National Commission on Agriculture, "Primary Agricultural
Credit Societies operating in the tribal areas are weak,
both structurally and tinanoially and the credit provided
by them has been tar from adequate,n13
Long-term cred1 t would be generally tor me_eting. agri
cultural development needs including soil conservation, land . reclamation, construction ot wells tor irrigation purposes,
. - . .
purchase ot agricultural implements, etc. The subsistence
economy ot the tribal population does not attraot them to
such land development programmes. Further, their low income
would entail supply or their credit neeas entirely from
financial institutions' a major reliance would have to be
plaoed on subsidies.· However, in view of the 1nadeq~ecy
and poor quality ot land, the majority ot tribal cultivators
are considered 'risky' to finance, Lower yields from the
!"and generally ett'eot their repaying capacity, Once they
beoome defaulters they are no more considered tor further
help trom the institutional sources. Again procedures and
formalities involved in. organising co-operative societies,
getting loans sanctioned, etc,, seems to have discouraged
the tribals from ooming to the co-operative tolds, The
13 •. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture (1976) P,117 Part XIII,
18
tribals have, therefore, to go tor their needs to the money
lenders and ultimately get exploited. The· National Commi-.
ssion on Agriculture had mentioned that the Land Development
Banks were not in a position to advance such investment credit.
In case of such long term credit, a mortgage ot land appeared
necessary as a security. "In most tribal areas, land 'surTeys
and settlements have yet to be completed. Expedious comple
tion of this work will remove a maJor impediment in the grant
of term oredit.n14
2.7 Poor and unorganised marketing system in the tribal
areas due partly to the· inaccessibility, has left the tribal
economy in many areas non-monetised. Transactions are still . .
I
conducted on the basis of a barter system, Essential consu-
mer goods, which have to be brought from outside (tor example,
salt, kerosene, coarse cloth, tea,·gu~ 1 cheap varieties of
soap, aluminium utensils, etc.) are purchased from the traders,
who ere also money lenders, in exchange tor the agricultural·
and forest produce. "These traders advance money to tribels
tor various ceremonies on personal surety, stipulating r~
payment of loan with interest in the form of forest products
or agricultural products attar harvest, The entire crop is
thus mortgaged in advance and very little remains with the
farmers tor personal consumption after the produce is
collected by the trader."1' This results in turther
14. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture -(1976) Part XIII, P.118
15. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture( 1976) Part XIII 1 P. 1 0) ••
19
borrowing both in oash end kin.d ~rom the trader, end the
burden of' debt thus increases. The food stutfs whioh the
tribal farmers sell. 3ust after the harvesting to the traders
at a depressed price would be required again for consumption
in the lean season.· The higher prioes prevalent in the lean
season results in either starvation for the tribal families
or further indebtedness. Hence, they fail to derive the
benefit either from high. agricultural pr.ioes prevailing in
pre-harvest period or from the prices prevailing in the
post-harvest period. In addition, the village merchants,
taking advantage of' termers' ignorance ot weights and
measures and prevailing market rates, exploit them in both
ways; i.e. while selling to the tribal farmers their re
quisites, as well as purchasing trom them the agricultural
and forest products. 16
2.8 Governmental Measures
The Union and the State Governments have been taking
measures from time to time to improve the s·ooio-eoonomio
conditions of' the tribals. The important measures aimed at
improving the economy ot the tribals include the steps to
save the tribals trom the exploitation ot money-lenders,
·traders and liquor contractors eto., improving ~grioulture
and opening ot employment opportunities through oottage
industries, rural works programmes and giving preferences in
f 16. Singh I.P. - Development of' Agriculture in Tribal Areas - Indian Journal ot Agricultural Bconomios Vol. XXV, 1970.
20
services, etc.
Among the laws to end eoonomio exploitation· ot
tribals the Debt Relief Legislations, the Lend .Alienation
Aots and Acts regarding Abolition ot Bonded Labour are very
important. The problem ot agricultural indebtedness and its
seriousness could be felt by the authorities as early as
nineteenth century by the uprisings like the Sonthal rebe
llion ( 18;;), the Deccan riots ( 1874), and the riots· ot . .
AJmer (1891). 18. The measures taken at that time were mainl7
palliative in nature and were apilioable to restricted areas
only. For instances, the Encumbered Estates Relief Aots and
Court ot Wards Acts passed between 1860 to 1890, the Land
Alienation Aots passed in PunJab (1900) and other provinces
and the Usurious Loan Aot, 1918, were some ot the earlier
Acts aimed at oheoking rural indebtedness as well as lend
alienation. The oases were to be settled b7 the Courts.
As regards the laws to protect the tribals from the
exploitation of non-tribals the British Government passed
the Scheduled District Act, 1874 and also provided tor de
marcation o:r Scheduled Districts to administer tribal areas.
The Government ot India Act, 1935 on the recommendation ot
the Simon Commission provided tor the classification ot dis
tricts on the basis of the predominance ot tribal population
into "Partially Excluded" and "Excluded" areas. Provincial
18. Agricultural Legislation in India - Vol. VIII, -Relief ot Agricultural Indebtedness - 1.1 and 1.8 (19.58). .
21
Governments also passed several Aots, to save the tribals.
For example, the Madras Act I of 1917 was passed to regulate
interest, end transfer of land in the Agency Tracts of
Genjem, Visakhepetanem and Godavari Districts. Similarly,
the Chhotte Nagapur Tenancy Aot of 1908 was to protect the
backward aboriginal classes of tenends. 19 __.,.
. The Constitution of India, 19501 in the Fifth
Schedule provides :-
"In particular end without prejudice to the generality . . . . . . '
of the foregoing power, such regulations may -
(a) prohibft or restrict the transfer of lend by or among
members of the Scheduled Tribes in such area;
(b) regulate the allotment of land to the members of the
Scheduled Tribes in such areaJ
(c) regulate the carrying on ot business as money lender
by persons who lend money to members of the Scheduled Tribes
in such area.n20
The State Governments, Which were responsible for the
management and regulation of land tenures, have either amended
the existing tenancy legislation or promulgated executive .
orders covering Schedule.d Areas with e view to controlling
alienation of tribal lends to non-tribals. For example in
Madhya Pradesh, which has the highest concentration of tribal
19. Land Alienation and Restoration in Tribal Communities in India - Edited by Dubey and Ratan.
20. Constitution ot India -Fifth Schedule 5(2) Page 240-modified upto June 1977.
22
population in the country, the Madhya Bharat Scheduled
Area (Allotment and Transfer of Lands) Regulation, 1954,
provides that no member of the soheduled.tribe, exoept with
prior permission of the Collector, can· transfer, by way of.
sale, lease or otherwise, any land to any person other than
the member of the Scheduled Tribe. In Orissa, the Orissa
Scheduled Areas Transfer of Immov$ble P~operty by· Scheduled
Tribes Regulation 2 of 1956 end Seotions 22 ana 23 of the .
Orissa Land Reform Aot, 1960 restrict the transfer ot lends
from Scheduled Tribes to members of non-scheduled tribes
in Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Areas respectively. Simi
larly, in GuJarat, the Scheduled Areas Regulation, 1969, in
RaJasthan the Aot of ·1956 o·onoerning transfer of tribal
lands, and Ma~arashtra Land Revenue Code, 1966, eto., are
some of the examples of legal restrictions imposed by the
State Governments regarding transfer of tribal lands to non
tribal&. Inspite of these restrictions on the transfer of
lands from scheduled tribes in different states, a large
acreage of tribal land has continued to be alienated due to
certain loopholes in the tenancy legislation, slaokness·in
the implementation of restrictive provisions, and other
socio-economic factors like lack of awareness on the part
of tribals rege~ding legislative prohibitions, their poverty
end tear and shyness of tribals to approach to governmental -~....:_.:_~
authorities. It was only after June 25 1 1975, after.tbe
President of India declared National Emergency in the country,
most of the State Governments have amended existing laws or
23
even enacted new laws and tried to implement them more
foroetully. The laws were amended or enacted mainly on the
following lines -
(a) to plug loopholes which were used to grab tribal
lands;
(b) To make them comprehensive so that they also cover
tribals living outside Scheduled AreesJ
(o) to simplify legal proceedings involved in the
handling ot land alienation oases;
(d) to tone up the administrative machinery for speedy
handling ot th~ oases;
(e) to include penal provisions to deal with tuture
occurrences of land alienation;
(t) controlling the loaning activities of. private money
lenders in tribal areasa and
(g) abolition ot bonded labour bT the enactment ot a
Central Legialation. 21
In the areas of legislation, the State Governments
have declared land alienation by way of sale, mortgage, or
by possession under Tenancy Acts from a tribal to a non
tribal as nul and void. For example the Government. of Rajas
than ~9de amendments to the Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 in
1976 by which a mortgage~ in the event of failure to return
land to the tribal mortgager, would be criminally liable to
21. Land Alienation and Restoration- in Tribal Communities ot India - Edited by Dubey and Ratan -PP, 193-204,
24
imprisonment upto one yeer and a fine'upto Rs.1,000 or both.
The Orissa Government has amended the Orissa Regulation 2
_of 1956 in which the period for obtaining tenancy on sche
duled tribes lands by a non-tribal is now )0 years instead
of 12 years, Whioh was the period earlier, Provision ot
imprisonment and fines are included in the ABt·in the event
of unauthorised occupation of any immovable property belong
ing to a member ot any scheduled tribe by a non-tribal, Rest
ot the State Governments having concentration ot tribal popu
lation in the States have emended the Aots accordingly,
Available information regarding the oases o~ lend alienation
detected, registered and restoration ot lends to tribals has
been given in Table VIII. The Table reveals that the largest
number ot oases of land alienation have been detected or
registered in Bihar (3S,501), followed by Maharashtra ()1,222),
RaJasthan (22,)28), Tripura (1),491), Andhra Pradesh (8,719),
Orissa (7,))8) end GuJarat (4,700) - in varying periods ot
time upto 1976 in oases ot various states. The disposal ot
the oases within this period was not, however, very encourag
ing. Column 7 ot Table Vlllindicates that a large number ot
oases ·were still awaiting disposal. The Table Villturther
revealed that the largest number ot tribels (17,952) had
been benefited with 15,848 aores ot land in Bihar upto
December 1976. The Report ot the Commissioner tor Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes tor the year 1973·74 indicated
that oases ot large scale alienation ot tribal lend were
reported in the States ot Assam, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, U.P.,
25
and West Bengal too.
After the declaration of emergency, State Governments
have also amended existing legislations regulating money
lending activities such as interest rates, disposal of out
standing debts, licencing of money lenders operating in
tribal areas, setting up debt relief Courts, etc. For
example, in Rajasthan the Scheduled Debtor Aot, 1975, pleoes
a morato~ium of one year on the recovery of debts trom
scheduled tribes debtors such as marginal farmers, small . -. - - ' -. .
farmers, agricultural labourers eto. An amendment to the
Aot in 1976; provides tor total liquidation of debts of oer
tain categories of debtors - marginal farmers, artisans and
agricultural labourers below Rs.2,400 per annum. In Bihar,
the Moneylenders Aot, 19.3g_and the Bihar Moneylenders (Regu
lation of Transaction) Aot, f9.39 were amended regulating
money lending activities in tribal areas. 22 Similarly,
several other states have enacted or emended legislation to
make it more stringent and enforceable.
The bonded labour system in the country has been . . .
abolished through the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Aot,
1976. The main provisions of the Act are to deolare bonded
labour tree from any obligation to render any tree service,
manuel or menial and el~ such oustoms, traditions, oontraots
and agreements as applied to them were declared void. 2.3 The
22. Policy Measures and Administrative Issue - Lend Alienation end Restoration- Edited by Dubey end Ratan- P.206.
2). Report of The Commissioner tor Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes- 1975-76 _and 1976-77 (24th Report) P.26.
26
Governments through,a series ot rules end regulations ere
trying to rehabilitate the freed bonded labourers •. As on .
)1st July 1977 ot the 97,396 bonded labourers identified in
the oountry-95 1 997 had been released and 2),720.rehabili-·
teted. 24
2.9 Planning and Tribal Agriculture
During the Plan-period both Union Government and State
Governments have undertaken various Developmental ProJects .... . . . . . . . . . - - ..
to bring about a change in socio-economic structure ot the . . . .
tribal economy. Under the Second Plan 4.3 Multi-purpose
Pilot ProJects-were started with the main objectives ot
improvement ot agriculture including encouragement of settled
cultivation, organisation of co-operatives, provision ot·
communications, health services etc •. These projects were . - .
renamed as Tribal Development Blooks in the Third Plan. Each
T.D. Block was intended to oover 25,000 people against the
Community Development Blocks which was intended to cover
66,000 people. At present there ere 464 tribal blocks end
20 sub-blocks (making a total ot 504) operating ell over the · 25 country. ·
An amount ot as.19.93 crores was spent in the First
Plan, during the Second Plan as.42.92 crores, the Third Plan
as.se.Jg crore, the Three Annual Plans as.)2.)2 orore, end
24. Heport ot The Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes - 1975-76 end 1976-77 (24th Heport) · P.26 end India 1977-76, P,)67.
25, V.K. Pur! - Planning for Tribal Development - Yojena · - June 1 , 1976 ~
27
Rs. 7S crores ~uring the Fourth Plan. · So tar as the develop
ment ot agriculture and employment programmes in the tribal
areas are ooncerned these programmes included communication,
subsidy for agricultural equipment, animal husbandry, horti
culture,. minor irr'igation, soil ooni!ervation, cottage in
dustries, etc. Added to all these programmes,. those of
health, housing and other taoilities were to be covered,
On the pattern of SFDA/ME.Al. Projects in rural areas,
Tribal DeTelopment Agency Projects were established on an
experimental b!!sis in 1971-72. These proJeots covered areas
like Srlkakulam district ot Andhra Pradesh, Singhbhum dis-. ' -
trict of Bihar, Dantewada and Konta tehasils of Bastar dis
trict in M.P., and Ganjam, Koraput, Keonjhar distr1ots of
Orissa. The outlay tor eaoh ot these agencies was Rs. 2
crores and the target was to· cover 10·,000 deserving tribal
families or 50,000 deserving tribal people in each tribal
agency project.
The Fifth Plan introduced the conoept ot sub-plan
in the tribal areas - At present around two-thirds ot the
tribal population is covered by such Plans~ 26 The Plan has
substantial provision tor integrated rural development -
developing agriculture through supply of agricultural
inputs, minor irrigation services, soil conservation,
deTelopment ot road and communication, development ot horti
culture, adequate marketing facilities etc. Added to all
26. Draft Five Year Plan (1978-8)) 1,91.
these.the integrated·programme also lnoludes the problems
of land alienation, indeqtedness and exploitation, bonded
labour, supply of consumer goods, housing eto. At a Maoro
level, the tunotions inoludes co-ordination of activities
in tribal development proJeots, ·agriculturaL re.searoh on a
regional basis, maJor irrigation projeots, river valley ' .
development, industrial and mineral development of the
region, eto, .. To help the States in the implem.entation of
the tribal development programmes the Fifth Plan had out
lined a Central assistance of Rs,19S.3) crores, the share
of the States ~eing Rs.ssS.)) orores. 27
The Sixth F~ve Year Plan however, hopes to make the·
Sub~Plan S~hemes more comprehensive for the upliftment of
backward areas which also include the tribal areas, "The
approach ot this Plan is to_rely to a much greater extent
on the development ot agri~ulture, village and small indus
tries.• subsidi'ry oooupations and related services through
hill area, tribal area, revised minimum needs and area
development program.mes,n2S For such area development schemes
including hill· area and tribal area plans and NRC outlays_j.s
Rs, 2800 crores.
Though some ot the changes in the tribal eoonoiDY' are
in evidence on·aooount of the e.otivities _undertaken by the
government, the efforts have not no far been able to solve
27. Draft Five Year Plan (197S-S3) 1,91, Page 112, '
28. Draft Five Year Plan (1978-8)). 1,97.
29
the basio problems ot poverty, malnutrition and exploitation.
Although legislations have been passed against the.transfer
of tribal lands, the benami-trensfer of tribal lands to non
tribals is continuing, "There are instanoes of non-tribals
marrying tribal women to get over the legal restriotions, 29
The problems of indebtedness, credit and marketing
are linked to one another, The co-operatives have to play
a significant role in this programme, As the tribals have
a strong feeling of community living, and long tradition ot
demooratio institutions, the oo-operative:movement has a
chance of suooess, They failed in the past due to lack ot
proper organisation and implementation by the people in the
field, Moreover, they fell into the hands of some vested
interests, A study team was constituted by the Government
of Ind1a in 1971 (Bawa Committee) on the co-operative struc
ture in tribal areas, The Team has recognised that the
society at primary level, which caters to the tribals 1
should provide a comprehensive range ot services, It had
recommended the organisation of credit-cum-marketing socie
ties. The society is expected to provide loans to the
tribals both for consumption and production purposes, under
take marketing operations in the tribal areas in the field
of purchasing from the tribals agricultural end forest
products and selling to them their daily necessities as well
as agricultural inputs. Some of the State Governments have
29. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture -1976, Pert XIII, P.111,
)0
alread;r taken steps to establish oo-operat1 ve societies
based on the recommendations of the Bawa Committee. "It
is hoped that the initial difficulties in the setting up
of· LAMPS· (Large Sized Multi-purpose· Co·operative Societies)
would be overcome and these societies would be able to give
muoh needed succour to the exploited tribal communit1es."30
It is· also good to note that the Government of Inaia has
issued instructions to nationalised banks to advance O.S
per cent cf their gross deposits under 4 per oent rate of
interest to· Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Tribal economy is intimately oonnected with the
forests. The forests provide them fruit, fuelwood, timber
and other products which the tribals consume as also sell.
Collection and marketing of minor forest products gives
employment to the tribals and supplements their income.
The National Commission on .Agriculture has recommended the
implementation of the Scheme of Social Forestry with the
following objectives 1
(1) fuel wood supply to the rural areas end replacement ·
of oowdung,
(it) fodder supply,
(iii) small timber supply,
(iT) protection of agricultural .fields against wind; and
(v) recreational needs.31
30. Report of The Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes - (24th Round) ;1976-77, P.a.
)1. Interim Report of the National Commission on Agriculture on Social Forestry, 1973 1 P.12.
.31
The plantation ot trees on the termers own hol~ings, . .
village commons, banks and bunds ot the tanks, government
waste lands, eto. was recommended by the Commission. The
Soh.eme would not onl7 giTe employment ·to the' tribal people,
but also oan fulfil their basio needs in the long run. The
Scheme has been working ~ith the co-operation ot both the
Centre and State Governments sinoe the Third Five Year Plan.
Muoh ot its success depends upon the willing co-operation
ot the rural and, tribal ~eople for which a net work ot
extension workers is needed.
The allied activities like dairying, poultry, bee
keeping, animal husbandry, eto., haTe great potentialities . '
to.provide employment all the year round to the tribal
farmers. While promoting livestock and poultry development
programmes tor the tribals a distinction has to be made
between tribal areas which have a market economy or are
nearer to market oentres, and areas whioh are inaooessible
and where a market economy has yet to develop. In the first
oese steps have to be taken tor breed development, management
ot livestock and poultry on modern and oommeroial lines. In
the second oase, the tribals may be helped to maintain the
liTestook to meet looal consumption needs.
Tribals are quite familiar with the cottage industries
like weaving and basket making eto_ The traditional skills -;r - .
ot the tribals should be identified and proper assessment
should be made regarding the development potential ot
village and cottage industries based on available looal raw
.32
materials.
The Sixth Five Year Plan has proposed the schemes
ot regionally oriented investment programmes in the baokward
areas. Some of the examples of such programmes are
"(i) investment in major bridges, roads, marketing taoili
tiee, or communication that oan open an area, make commercial
agriculture profitable and possible to help to stimulate
non-agricultural job opportunities;
(11) investments in labour training which would be ot
particular importance in areas where a substantial change in
the occupational structure is required;
(iii) emergence of rural banks, credit co-operatives end
o~her institutions to improve the credit net work and reduoe
exploitations;
(1v) support tor land retorms and.other programmes ot
institutional ohange • .32
These programmes need sincere and systematic imple
mentation in tribal areas by the implementing authorities.
The success ot the proJects much ~epends upon the popular
support and eo-operation of the tribal people.
32. Dratt Five Year Plan- (197g.g3) 6.10.
.33
CHA.-1?TER III
TRIBAL AGRICULTURE IN HILL AREAS
SHIFTING CULTIVATION
.3.1 The economy of the hill tribals is largely based on
lend end forest resources, Agriculture is the principal
source or livelihood tor the hill tr1bals, as it is tor
the p~ains-tr~bals. Although in some pockets of the hill
erees 1 settled farming in the form ot terreoe or wet oult1-
vat1on is practised by some ot the tribes, t'he prinoipal
type or cultivation prevalent among the hill tribals is
known as "Shifting Cultivation". It is assumed that shitt
i.ng cultivation is th~ oldest method of e.griculturel practioe
adopted by man.y primitive tribes inhabiting in the tropioal
and sub-tropiael regions. One source dates back the existence 1 of shitting_oult1vat1on to· .3000 B.c.
The system consists of telling of trees in the hill
slope 1 burning. the fallen trees and buehes 1 end. lastly
dibbling or broadcasting seeds in the ash-covered soil. The
lend so prepared is cultivated tor two to three years till
its fertility is exhausted. Then the land is abandoned end
e new patoh of forest lend is brought und.er cultivation.
The oultiva.tion is thus shifted _from one pBtoh of land to
another after every few years of cultivation.
Though in English terminology this system is oalled
1. Tripethy D.P. - Shifting Cultivation in Orissa -P.8.
34
as "slash end burn" cultivation, in India it has numerous
local terms. It is known as "Jhum" 1.n Assam, Kureo end
Khelli in Bihar, Weler in Gujaret, Pendo, Bewar end Dehiye
in Madhya Pradesh, Kumeri in Madras, Brings, Podu, end Dahl
in Orissa, Tekongtuu in Nagaland, Hookuismong in Tripura . 2
and Adiabiok in NEFA. .
The system of Shifting Cultivation has been defined
by Pelzer as "an eoonomy of which main ohareoteristios are
rotation of fields rather than orops; clearing by means ot . . - .
tire, absence of draught animals and manuring, use ot human
labour only, employment of dibble stick or hoe; short
period of soil"oooupanoy alternating with long follow
:periods. "3
We may brief the charaoter1stias of shifting cultiva
tion as follows
(i) Rotation of fields, not orops - or shifting ot the
fields over time end spaoo;
(11) using of fire as the olearing agent.;
(111) use of human labour as the ohiet inputs;
(iv) no enimal or plough is used tor cultivation;
(v) use of simple tools like dibble stick or hoe;
{vi) praotice of mixed cropping in the land; and
2. Banerjee N.K. • An Appraisal ot Shifting Cultivation in India - Agro-Eoonomio Problems ot Tribal India - Edited by M.L. Patel. P.106.
). Pelzer, K.J. - Poineer Settlement in Assietio Tropioa ( 1954) - Clark and Haswell, 1966 P. :n _.-The Eoonomios ot Shifting Cultivation in AAsam (A Thesis) - N. Sehe.
(vii) shifting of homestead, it necessary.
),2 Extent ot Shifting Cultivation
In India Shifting CUltivation is found largely in
the States ot Andhra Pradesh, the hill districts ot Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Menipur, Nagaland, Orissa and Tripura. The system also
exists in some parts of Bihar, Gujarat, Mahareshtra, Mysore
and Kerala, The _dat~ rega~ding the eoreage ~overed under
shifting cultivation, ~umber o~ people depending on it, and
its productivity, etc., are scanty and sketchy, Doubts have
often aris~n regarding the reliability ot the published
statistics. H6wever, atter oompiling the reports given by
the Commissioner tor Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes,
and the Dhebar Commission, a Table is prepared, whioh gives
a picture of the tribal population depending on shifting
cultivation, the areas covered and the crops grown etc,
(See Tabla IX), An analysis ot the Table IX would reveal
that during the sixtees, 25 1 89 1 401 tribal persons were depend
ing upon 1),08,2)6 acres of land annually for shifting culti
vation. Dhebar Commission viewed that since the land was
changed in rotation, the total area affected by shifting
cultivation might be estimated at five times the annual
area. 4 In North East India alone where shifting cultivation
is largely practised by the tr1bals 1 about 2.7 million
hectares of forest land are affected by jhuming and nearly
4. Report ot the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission - (Dheber Commission)_ 1).6.
halt a million tribal tamilies were involved.'
Al~hough production ot rood orops is the main type
ot agricultural praotioe among the tribals under shitting
cultivation, some cash and oommeroial crops are also raised.
Shifting cultivators in 'aitterent states, tor example, are
raising cotton, fruits, chillies, ginger, tumeric, oilseeds,
sugarcane~ 3ute,. vegetables, tor the markets in the plains.
A oompari sbn ot the Column S w1 th Column. It ot Table
IX indicated that.per capita availability of land in India . ..-- . . . '
tor Shi~ting cultivation was_ onl~ 0.50 sores •. Table x, however, shQws that the average lend ~er p~rson practising
. shifting culti~ation varied between 0.004 sores in Bihar to
2. 89 sores in Gujarat (inclucUng Maharashtra); in the
ma3ority ot oases it was less than one aore. Considering
the small amount ot per capita forest land put under &hitt
ing cultivation, and the primitive praotioes ot agriculture,
the tribal& have to depend upon ~ the collection ot forest ¥ • • ...- -- •
produce, hunting and gathering tood eto.-, tor the rest or
the year. In some oases they ere also engaged in ~se
house industry and oasual labour.
).) Low Produotivitt
The produotiTity ot land under shitting cultivation
has been estimated to be lower than that ot wet and settled
cultivation in any part ot the country. An estimate ot per
sore paddy yield under shifting cultivation by the tribals
s. Wadis F.K. ·-Control ot Shifting Cultivation in North Eastern Reg! on- Prajnan Vol. V No. ) , Sept. 1976.
37
.. of GanJam district (Orissa) shows that it is 240 Kg.,
whereas it comes to 480 Kg. to 600 Kg~ in case of low land
in the Plains. 6 Similarly in Meghalaya it .has been esti
mated that paddy yields in Jhum areas are 715 Kg. per
heotare 1 as against 1369 Kg. per heotare in more terraced
agr1oulture.7 Low returns from agriculture have been mainly
responsible in keeping the hill tribals at a subsistence .-:::
level of existence.
The low productivity of land under shifting culti
vation may be attributable to.the following reasons J,
(1) Primitive Methods
It has already been mentioned that after burning the
trees and bushes, the cultivators Just broadcast the seeds
on the ash bed or dibble the seeds into the holes. Gene-- .
rally plough is not used or earth is not dug. The main
input in shifting cultivation is the ash from the burnt
matter and human labour next to land and seed. A pattern
of mixed_ cropping is generally adopted by the cultivators,
where paddy, millets, beans, sweet potatoes, chilU.es,
ootto~, end a number of vegetables are planted together • .
In the absence ot application ot manure or fertilisers, or
any improved techniques of cultivation, the yields per acre
ere bound to be low.
6. K. Mahapatra and K. Devi - Shiftin~ Cultivation in Orissa- Ad1bas1 - Vol.XIV- Jan. (1973).
1. F.K. ·wadia - Control of Shifting Cultivation in North Eastern Region - PraJnan - Vol~ 3 July - Sept. 1976.
(ii) Jhum Cyole
A plot of forest land after being cultivated for
two to three years is left fallow for a number of years to
regain fertility. Ih the interval the cultivators cultivate
other plots of lanl'l. This is known as the "Jhum Cycle".
This oyole depends.upon the pressure of population of a
particular area as well as the availability of suitable
hill slopes~ :t'he h_igher the densi_ty of_ popu~eti?n in a
particular area, the shorter is the 'jhum oyole'. With . . . ' . . . . . . . . . .. . .
inorease.in the population in recent years the jhum cycle
which was 30 to 40 years ~n the past had decrea~ed to 1 to
17_ ye~rs i~ Arunachal Pradesh, 4 to 5 years in Meghalaya,
Mizoram and Tripura, ' to 10 years in Assam Hills, 6 to 8
years in Manipur and 6 to 1S years in Nagaland.g With the
jhum cycle, becoming shorter, the soil fertility cloes not
fully recover and the yield of crops per sore decline.
(iii) Lend Ownership
In most of the tribal areas in the hills the land
is owned by the community as a whole, The power of distri
bution of land for cultivation rests with the village head
man, or the village community. Due to non-fixity ot indivi
dual tenurial rights, the farmers have little attachment to . - .
land. They do not take any interest for_ the improvement of
land and hence, the productivity sutters. Moreover due to
8, Wadia F,K.- Control of Shifting-Cultivation in the North Eastern Region - Prajnan - Vol. ) July-Sept. 1976, and National Commission on Agriculture- Ch.42, PP.147-158 ( 1976).
.39
lack of individual records of right over the cultivable
land, the tribals are unable to get the facilities of
institutional credit for investment in agriculture against
land as a security.
(iv) Difficulties of Irrigation
Tribal areas are extremely backward from the point
of view of irrigation. Although, hill areas ~enerally get
more rainfall, the rein water is not retained on the hill . . -
land as it immediately runs off down the slopes. The
tribals in the hills ere therefore able to grow only rein-fed
crops. The major problem ~s _to preserve the water_ through
dams or bunds, -and the preparation of_te~~ac~d lands for
irrigation purposes whioh involve heavy _oost.
Where terraces have been constructed, the cultiva
tion is more intensive. The Apatanis ot Arunachal Pradesh,
the Angami Nagas, and the Savaras of Orissa, have been
successful in intensive terrace fa_rming unC!er <tondi tiona of
wet cultivation. The Savaras of Orissa have turned the
Podu fields into terraced lands. Water from the neighbouring
streams is diverted into these fields for irrigation with
great care and ingeneuity. Angami Nages of Nagaland, and,
in some areas, the Khasis have been practising settled
farming by oons~ructing terraces on the_ hill slopes. Though
no sophisticated implements are used and no chemical ferti
lisers are applied in the fields, the Apatanies have
achieved excellent results by efficient use of water re
sources. The carrying oapeoity of the soil is about SOO per
40
square miles, whioh has besides irrigated tields, pasture
land, groves, housesites, forests, eto.9
(v) Carrying CapacitY
A comparative study on the carrying capacity ot land
under shifting cultivation in the areas ot Mizo Hi~ls
(Assam), Keonjhar Hills (Orissa), and Abujhamar Hills
(Madhya Pradesh) (See Table ~) reveals that sh~tting oulti·
vation oan supp~rt varyi~g number ot people under different
conditions ot raintall. 10 The rainfall in the Mizo Hills - -- .
is 13~ in the Keonjhar Hills 65ft and i~ the Abujhamar . . - '
Hills 50". The oar17i.ng densi ~Y o~ popula.tion. per. square
mile i~ 37.5 in the Mizo Hills,.24.7 in the Keonjhar Hills
.and 14.3 in the.Abujhamar Hills. It we compare these . . .
figures with the present density ot population ot those
areas, we tind in the Mizo Hills it is 13.2 and in the . .
Abujhamar Hills it is 6.1, whereas in the Keonjhar Hills ~ . . ~ ..
the .figure is. 63.2. The oonsequenoes ot over population
in the Keonjhar Hills are extension ot cultivation to areas . . .
whioh are unusable tor the purpose, ~hortening ?t r~speotive cyo~e~ result~ng.in low.average productivity (2.37 quintals
per aore), and outmigration in search ot work as agricultu
ral labourers. Suoh problems are not there where density ot
9. Tripathy R.N. - Agricultural Problems in TriQal India -Perspeotives on Tribal Development and Administration -NICD, Hyderebad- PP.181-194.
10. Bose Saradindu - "Problems ot Shitt.ing Cultivation in India - Agro-Economio Problems.ot Tribal India -Edited by M.L. Patel - P.120 (also see his book Carrying Capacity ot Land Under Shifting Cultivationft - The Asiatio Sooiety- Cal.11. ·
population is lower then the oerrying capacity. Another
important thing to note here is the difference between the
carrying capacity under shifting cultivation with the
highest rainfall in the Mizo Hills (37.5) and the carrying
capacity of the Apatani under provisions of irrigation (SOO).
).4 Reasons of Pursuing Shifting Cultivation as an occu
pation -
Inspite of the disadvantages as stated above, the
system of shifting cultivation continues among the tribals - . . .
for various reasons.
(i) The tribals under shifting cultivation practise
mixed cropping·in the 3hum land. In favourable conditions,
the cultivator produces his family requirements of food, • I •
cereals, vegetables, oilseeds and pulses and a few cash
crops to exchange or barter against his requirements from
outside.
(ii) Shifting cultivation provides work to all the able
bodied persons including grown-up children.
(iii) Plough cultivation requires more of inyestment in
form of bullocks, seeds, fertiliser and labour charges
which are beyond the means of an average tribal. For shift
ing cultivation the tribals do not spend much on these items.
Ashes of natural vegetation are the only manure used in the
land. Moreover shifting cultivation oan be undertaken with
extremely simple implements like hoe, digging stick and axe.
(iv) ExtensiTe fertile lands are not available in the
areas where the primitive tribes live. Besides in certain
.42
areas where they live at the foot of the hills or plains
they have lost their wet land to non-tribals. As a result
. they have no other alternative but to cultivate hills slopes.
·(v) Shifting ·cultivation forms .a part .and parc.el of ~heir
culture and way of life, The rituals, socialorganisations,
.and recreational activities are interwoven with t:be practice
of shifting cultivation.
3. S Effects of Shifting Qul tiyetion - Two Views.
There are two views regarding the effects of.shifting . . . . . . . '
cultivation an~ the steps to be taken to tackle the problem•· ·
Those who opine that the system is be.d and harmful have based
their findings .il! _the f<>.llowing lines.
Shifting ~ultivation )las led to the destruction of
valuable forests, soil. erosion, and drying of the springs
in the hills. It has affected rainfall and caused floods in
the lower reaches of the valleys. H.L, Bor, the then Bota
nist of. the Forest Research Institute of Dehra Dun had
characterised shifting cultivation as harmful causing ex-11
tensive soil erosion. It is viewed that the forests
provide physical obstruction to the velocity of wind and
water, and thus check soil erosion. Once the forests are
gone due to continuous operation of shifting cultivation,
land becomes loose, and dust storms and torrential rain
cause wide scale soil erosion.
11, Bor M,L, - Presidential Speech in Bombay Session of Indian Soienoe Congress, 1942 - Dhebar Commission (1961) 1),8.
43
Mr. Nicholson, one time Conservator of Forests in
Orissa, while giving ·evidence before the Partially Areas
Enquiry Committee of Orissa, observed, - "The damage done
to the forests by shifting cultivation was serious; and
only under certain conditions where area of land available
is large and population small, sucb culti_vation does little
harm."12 Due to practice of extensive shifting culUvation
in the Koraput plateau (Orissa), for example, the sal
forests have completely gone out of e:x:isten.ce from the Sader
Sub-division. Even some of the blocks of the district are
practically devoid of all forest resources. ·
It has ~lso been viewed that reduction of forests
caused by shifting cultivation reduces the water-holding
and water-releasing capacity of the hills. As a result
streams and rivers run dry in summer - when actually water
is most needed. Further, reduction of.forests brings devas
tating floods in the plains as the rivers get silted rapidly.
Hence, on the basis of these observations, it is con
cluded that shifting cultivation gives rise to two grave
enemies of agriculture i.e. flood and drought.
The second opinion on the effects of shifting culti
vation is that, Jhuming operation is not so much harmful as
it has been generally described. Mr. Chaturvedi, at one
time Inspector General of Forests, Government of·India, and
12. Report of the Second Conference for Tribes and Tribal (Scheduled) Areas, Nov. 1953, P.256 •.
44
Mr. M.S. Sivaraman, the then Advisor, Programme Administra
tion,. Planning Commis·sion, are ot the view that the system
is no·t necessarily unsoientitio and can be improved. 13 It
is argued that the high humidity and heavy rainfall in the
region does not peruiit the soil to remain barren tor long,
Some form ot growth immediately covers the top soil which
does not allow tor further erosion. The tribals also·
prepare a seed bed in the steep· slo~es and do not dist~rb
the top soil by ploughing or hoeing, Chaturvedi opined, . .
"The notion widely held that shifting cultivation is res
ponsible in the main tor large scale soil erosion needs to
be ettectively.dispelled. The oorrect approach to the
shifting oul"~ivation lies in aooepting it not as a necessary
evil, but recognising it as a way ot liteJ not condemning
it as an evil praotioet but regarding it as an agricultural
praotic e ••• " 1 ~
The opinion that shifting cultivation do.es not create
much problem of soil erosion as some form ot growth imme.:.
diately covers the soil due to hea:,Y rain cannot be accepted
as universally true. Shirting cultivation has caused severe
problems in the areas where rainfall is comparatively less,
13. See Dhebar Commission Report ( 1961) ·13. 8 and Tripathy R.N. - Agricultural Problems in Tribal Areas -P.erspeotive on Tribal Development and Administration -NICD - Hyderabad.
14. Chaturvedi - Report ot the Committee on Special ' Multi-Purpose Tribal Blocks (Scheduled) Areas -
PP. ·46-49 - Dheber Commission (1961} 1).6.
4S
and soil is not oonduoive tor rapid vegetation, and the
density of population· is more.
There is also another observation that in the Assam
Hills, at least ten centimetres or soil is washed away
even from the moderate slopes in each. Jhum!ng cyole, Al
though the vegetation grows quioklyl the suooessive growths
deteriorate from large trees to shrubs and bamboos, and
ultimately to coarse grass, Where the slopes are steep or
Jhuming cycle short, barren rooks have also appeared. 1S
Hence, the shifting oult~vation is one ot the maJo.r
problems in the tribal areas and it is not an ideal method,
Dhebar Oommiss~on feels that, as nearly 10 per cent ot the
tribal population depends upon jhuming, they oannot be
deprived ot their land, their livelihood and their way or
lite. "Total replacement or the system, it it comes at all, . 16 . . .
will be a long term prooess." Similarly Mr. Sivaraman
concludes; "In most ot the interior areas, where communica
tion is not developed, and not suttioient land suitable tor
terraoing is available; jhuming alone oan be done tor the . .
present and as such every effort should be made to improve
the fertility of the jhumed land.n17
· 1;, Goswami P.O. -Status Paper on Shifting Cultivation and Soil Conservation in North East India - Directorate ot So~l Conservation, Assam 1973 - quoted by-Wadis -Prajan Vol. V No. ), 1976.
16. Dhebar Commission (1961) 1).11.
17. Report ot the Committee on Speoial MUltipurpose Tribal Block (Scheduled) Areas - PP.4S-49 - quoted by Dhebar Commission - ( 1961 ) 13. 8. ·
System of shifting cultivation is a mixed prob~.~ partly connected wit~ the physical condition of the land
and partly with social customs, trad~ti~ns ana beliefs.
The solution, for the present, is to regulate the farming . . practices on scientific lines so that its disadvantages
are reduced and fertility of the soil is promoted. Alter
native terming praGtioes must be gradually introduced so
that dependence on shifting cultivation is reduced.
).6 Measures to Control Shifting Cultivation
Various schemes tind programmes sponsored by the
Centre and the State Governments are under implementation
to ween awey trjbels from shifting cultivation. It is also . .
expected thet the programmes·would enable the tribals to
have a better end more stable income trom agriculture. The
important measures include -
(a) soil conservation activities , land reclamation,
terracing, countour building, plantation, development ot
irrigation, development ot pastures, etc.;
(b) Programmes of colonisation and settlement; - provid
ing the tribals with land and other facilities to undertake
settled cultivation, and also with residential accommodation;
(o)
(d)
(e)
introduction of cash crops and horticulture; . ' . '
tangle cultivation, and
agri-silviculture.
The implementation and progress ot some of the prin
cipal measures in this direction are mentioned below.
47
Soil-Conservation
Proper implementation ot soil-conservation activi
ties can yield immediate returns end can save the soil from
further deterioration, It will give D.ew soil, new vegeta
tion and in tew years rejuvenate forests too,
Dhebar Commission viewed that the soil conservation
activities were progressing in full swing in the States ot
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Orissa, The
Commission found that everywhere complaint was regarding . 18
the insuttioienoy ot tunds. In the North Eastern Region
the States' programme ot soil conservation oompris! -
(a) the traditional soil conservation measures like
terracing; countour building, reclamation, attor~station, . . . .
irrigation, plantation etc., and
(b) special programme ot resettlement.
Available reports show that by the end ot 1975-76 an
area ot about 190 lakh hectares ot agricultural land was
treated with soil conservation practice and about 20 lakh . ' . . . . .
hectares ot non-agricultural land was put under afforesta
tion and grass land development with a total expenditure ot
Rs.4,22 crores. Although these tigures stand tor the country
as a whole, the major work, no doubt, has been done in the
tribal areas. 19
Len~ Reclamation Schemes
A Land Reclamation Scheme has been undertaken by the
Tribal Development Agencies in the tribal areas ot
18. Report of the Dhebar Commission (1961) 1).)1, 19, India (1977-78) P,211,
48
Srikakulam District ot Andhra Pradesh. The Agency prepared
the land, undertook m1nor irrigation works, end supplied
the cultivators with·arought oattl8, farm implements and
houses etc.· A survey of the pertormanoes of· the scheme
tor a period ot three years (1973-74 to 1975-76), showed
that as against 35~52 per cent ot cultivated area put under
shifting cultivation in the first year (i.e. 1973-74), the
proportion declined to 10.76 in the second year and to 10,2)
in the third year. 20 In the areas* where the Tribal Develop
ment Agencies are undertaking this type ot intensive works,
the tribals are also gradually shifting to high yielding
varieties .and (l.Ommercial crops.
Terraced and Settled Cultivation
Terraced cultivation is regarded as a more ettective
solution to ·the problems ot shifting cultivation. In many
areas subsidies have been given by the government to per
suade the tribals to take to terrace cultivation. But
terracing can be undertaken only under certain conditions,
and not everywhere. Roy Burman and Sharma, in their study ot
a Naga Village, found that the efforts did not make much
success due to. the following reasons.
(1) nature of the terrain was not suitable tor terrace
or wet oultivation,/~f~ts were small and scattered and there
was t~ar ot ~1ld animals, (3) dittioulty ot making roads to
20. Reo I.v.s. and Reo N. Gopal- Modernising Farming Systems of Hill Tribes.
49
reach the scattered plots tor wet cultivation at long
distance, (lt) Rivers were deep and it was C!ifficult to
construct the irrigation channel, (5) lack of finance for ' . 21
irrigation.
Another factor which inhibits the adoption of
terrace cultivation is the :reeling that the top soil con
taining fertility built into it by long years of leaf fall ' ' gets disturbed when terracing is made. The newly.construc-
. ' '
ted terraces h~ve comparatively inferior top soils~ To
restore fertility in the terraced fields green manures and ' . '
other chemical fertilisers are necessary to be applied in
the fields. I~ is doubtful how far the tribal cultivators ·
with their subsistence economy will be able to invest in • the inputs re~ired for a more settled form of agriculture.
Unless adequate.and timely inputs are made available to them
from the institutional sources, such costly projects of land
reclamation and terracing are not normally undertaken by the
tribal e.
The National Commission on Agriculture has recommen
ded the following 'points with regard to terracing_ of land
for settled. cultivation. 22
(i) small scale irrigation may have to be arranged from
hill-streams,
(ii) effective extension education is essential,
21. Roy Burman B.K. end Sherma P.S. - Tribal Agriculture in India - Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics -Vol. XXV 1 July-1 970. ·
22. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture - (1976) Part IX, PP.147-158 1 Ch.lt2:12.
50
(iii) continued financing for maintenance, and institu
tional arrangements for irrig~tion, seed and fertiliser,
· etc,,
(iv) the land tenure system should be set right,
It is realised that settled-cultivation should not
be ~egarded as the only solution to the problem of shifting
cultivation, It may not be possible to obtain sui table
lands for terracing to solve the proble~s of all·tribal
families depending upon shifting cultivation. It is also
a time. consuming process involving heavy oost. Henoe,
simultaneous programmes like J~ri-silvi culture, introduc
tion of horticulture crops, and development of live-stock,
etc, have to be taken up.
fl~ri-Silvioulture Programmes
Agri-Silviculture programme has been recommended as
another alternative to improve shifti.ng oultivatlon. It
aims at integrating the forest preservation with shifting
cultivation. It is based on the assumption that trees play
a vital role in protecting agriculture in the long-run.
Trees preserve moisture in the lend by giving shade to the
soil, their falling leaves provi~e manure to the soil;
loppings end thinings give firewood to tho cultivators, so
that cow-dungs and animal dropp~ngs can be used as manure.
Lastly, forests provide valuable timber, fruit, honey and
several other raw materiels to the tribels which oan be
exohangod for consumer goo~s. The programme has to be
worked out in a planned manner in diff~rent regions
51
depending upon the availability or lend tor cultivation
end tor forests, eyst·em or lend tenures, evailebili ty or
water, etc• "The programme should provide the five F's -
rood., fuel, fodder, fruits end fair returns to the termer. n23
This objective can be achieved by a rational distribution
ot productive lend tor agriculture, horticulture, silvi
culture end pestorege. The National Commission on Agricul
ture opines, 24 "we should say that the lower and middle
hill slopes should be suitable tor horticultural end planta
tion crops and higher slopes tor afforestation and pasture
and grass land development." We have also referred to the
Programme ot "Social Forestry" in Chapter II. Agri-Silvi-.. . . . .
culture Programme designed tor the hill tribals is only a - . .
scheme on the same lines.
Taungie System
Tating~ System is a combination or Silvi-CUlture end
impermanent agriculture. It has been tried with success in
Assam and Menipur tribal belt end is under experiment in
Tripura area. 25 Under this system the cultivators ere per
mitted to clear end burn a part or the forest area and then
23. Pal B.N. - Policy Measures tor Tribal Agriculture -Agro Economic Problems ot Tribal India - Edited by M.L. Patel- P.19.
24. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture -1976- Part IX Ch.42:12, PP-147-158.
25. Pel B.N. - Some Farming Practices ot Indian Tribes men - Agro Economic Problems of Tribal India - Edited -M.L. Pal- P.100.
52
plant .rows of commercially valuable trees. Th~ fermer is
permitted to cultivate his own crops between the rows or
the new plantations. Within three to four years when the
new plantation gets established, the fermer is allowed to
move to another part of the forest and repeat the process
there. This method enables the commercially useful trees
to be exploited ·by a cycle or about 50 to 1 50 years. The
cultivator wil.l return to the first plot wher_e the trees
having tull growth ere ready to be out down.
Cash Crops end Horticulture
The Dhebar Commission in its report gives a note on
the possibilities or undertaking cash crops and horticulture
plantation programmes in different parts of the tribal areas . 26 . - . . .
or the country. Himachal Pradesh is supplying potato seeds
to a great part of India. The Commission feels there is
urgent need to provide credit, transport and marketing
facilities to the tribal cultivators. Andhra Pradesh
Government in the Arku Valley is trying pine-apple, other
fruits and coffee. Chillies and cashewnuts can be conve
niently produced by the Andhra tribals. G~Jerat 1 Mahareshtra
and Rajasthan are ideal tor growing cotton and tobacco at
the lower al,titude and various types of fruits. at higher
altitud~. Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and West Bengal
can produce oranges, pineapples, plantains and potatoes.
26. Report or the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission -.Dhebar Commission- (1961) Ch.1). _
53
Coffee can oe grown at higher altitudes of these areas.
In or~ssa there is a scope for tumeric cultivation. The
Assam tribal areas, Manipur and Tripura grow large quanti
ties of oranges and pineapples •. They can also develop tea
gardens in .these areas. But fruits of these areas are
mostly wasted for want of transportation facilities.
Miss Wadis, after an assessment of the resettlement,
plantation and horticultural .schemes undertaken by the
governments of North-Eastern Region, feels that there are
two maJor problems whioh are not properly dealt.with by the
governments. First is the post reclamation credit needs . .
and second, the marketing arrangements. 27 Added to these, . . ·- . . . . . .. . . . - ' . .
seeds, plants, manure, fertilisers and insecticides eto • . . - . . '
should be provided to the tribal cultivators practising the
cultivation of cash crops and horticulture - in different
states of the country.
Colonisation Sohemes
Colonis~tion schemes in the tribal areas aim at a . .
comprehensive programme to resettle the shifting cultivators.
State governments are taking steps to induce the tribals to
settle agriculture by providing them with residential facili
ties, lands for cultivation and necessary inputs, and imple
ments. Government. of Orissa, for example, have estaolished
a number of colonies in the tribal areas during the plan
27. Wadia F.K. - Control of Shifting Cultivation in the North Eastern Region - PraJnan, Vol. V, No. ) -July-Sept. 1976.
54
period. Available information revealed that by 1974-75
altogether 105 such colonies were set up, in which 3098 . .
families were settled. But subsequently it was found that
522 families i,e, about 17 per cent or the families had . 28 . .
deserted tor some reason or other, Some efforts have also
been made by the Government to rehabilitate the tribals in
Dandakaranya ProJect area by providing them 25 per cent or
the reclaimed lands, Government or Tripura, for example,
have started the colonisation scheme for the tribals since
195.3-54 - end a large nllDJ.ber or tribals have been settled,
In recent years Government of Tripura have proposed to settle
200 Jhumia fami~ies - 100 families will be settled tor horti-- . .
cultur~l development, end the .. rest 100 fam!l~es will be
settled on agricultural land. 29 Government_ or Assam prop~sed
to resettle 11,600 families in the Mikir and North Cachar - .
Hill districts under a soheme for the "Permanent Settlement
ot Jhumia Cultivators Through Development of Plantation
Crops," Though they will be employed on wages in rubber and . .
coffee plantation, subsidiary employment will be provided to
them through settled agriculture and other forest works.
. . .
28, Moh~patra P.O. -The Strategy of D~velopm~nt of Tribal ·Economy of Orissa with ~peoial Reference to.Koraput District - Tribal Problems ot Today and Tomorrow -Saberi Cultural Society - Bhubaneswar - Compiled from Annual Administration Report 1974-75. -
29. Wadis F,K, - Control of Shifting Cultivation in NorthEastern Region - Pra4nan - Vol, V, No. ~ - July-Sept 1976. ~ . . . J . •
55
Although various State Gove~ments ere undertaking
colonisation schemes in the above lines to divert the
shifting cultivators to settled agriculture, the proJects
have not been enthusiastically accepted by the tribals in
all places. . It is found that tribals, in some places, have
either deserted the colonies or are maintaining two esta
blishments i.e. the old houses in the. hills and the new
houses in the colonies.
A. well planned extension programme is needed to
orient the traditio~al hi_ll cultivators towards a ~ermanent
settled cultivation, Timely hel~ with regard to seeds,
fertiliser, 1mP.lements credit and water facilities will
keep the cultivators attached to their new farms.
Occupations allied to agriculture like animal hus
bandry, poultry, fishing etc., as have been discussed in -- .
Chapter II oan be taken up simultaneously in the settled . . areas as subsidiary source ot employment. Forest areas
should be earmarked for the purpose ot grazing ot cattle
and other animals.
_.Tribal families, both undertaking shifting cultiva
tion as well as under colonisation programmes, should be
organised under the SFDA/MFL tor their requirements ot
credit, inputs, etc. and tor the marketing ot their produce,
Forest and agro-based small and cottage industries
may be opened in the tribal areas depending upon the availa
bility ot raw materials end other facilities.
Added to all .these a net work ot communication should receive the top priority in these areas.
CHAPTER IV
SUGGESTED REMEDIES
4,1 In the earlier chapters some ~t the major problems
ot the tribal agriculturists, both living in the plains and . . ' . . .
in the hills have been discussed, An attempt was also made
to review the measures taken by the authorities to tackle
them, This chapter reviews the suggestions given by ditte-.. . . . . ~ . . .. - . . . . . . ..
rent authorities and scholars to solve the agricultural
problems of the tribals,
It has been pointed out in Chapter II, that the major
problems teeing the _plains tribals are uneconomic holdings,
land. alienation, tenurial disincentives, indebtedness,
problems of marketing and lack ot extension services,
4,2 In order to make the uneconomic holdings of the
tribels into economically viable units, there are suggestions
that in the matter of land distribution schemes priority . 1
should be given to small cultivators, The proper implemen-
tation of such a suggestion would however be dependant upon
the ava1iabil1ty of surplus lend ~ either by way of ceilings
or from Government waste land, as elso.the number ot land~ess
as well as poor tribals with uneconomic holdings in the
1,(a) V,K, Puri- Plen,ing tor Tribal DevelopmentYojana Vol, XXII 10, June 1, 1978,
. . (b) I.P, Singh'- Development of Agriculture in Tribal
Areas - Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics, Vol, XXV, July, 1970.
57
village. In comparison to the needs of the people, the
available surplus land is generally inadequate. Under suoh
circumstances the distribution of land would need to be
weighed among the land.less tribals· or the uneconomic hold
ings. In either case the total magnitude of the.problem
cannot be solved. Henoe, more intensiv.e methods of culti
vation of the existing farms with the provision of water,
inputs, seeds and fertilisers to generate more income from
the field at governmental initiative have to be taken up.
At the same time allied activities like livestock raising,
poultry, piggery eta, should be encouraged, Rural works
programmes.wil~ help the landless and land poor tribals to
earn and supplement their income.
4.) Almost all the scholars who have been studying the
agr~oultural pr~blems of tribals, the Committees and Commi
ssions appointed to go through their eoonomio problems have
been pointing out that the land alienation, as a result of
tribal indebtedness is the main cause of their exploitation.
Suggestions tor the passing of legislation against aliena
tion of tribal land have been made. State Governments have
passed laws against alienation of tribal lands to non-tribals,
implemented them, end in some oases restored the alienated
land to the tribels. But due to loopholes in the legisla
tion, benami transfers of lend are oontinuing. A detailed
study is needed to be done in this regard, end solutions
have to be found out to remedy the legal loopholes and to
solve the specific eoonomio problems of tribals who are
allowing suoh benami transfers. The Commissioner for
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tri be.s however tel t, · "it
seems that it has not been possible to know the megni tude
of the problem in ell the tri.bel areas of the ·country.· It
will go a long way if comprehensive surveys by expert
agencies are Il!EI.de in the tribal areas· where this problem
has known to be acute. Efforts ere also req:uired to be
made by the State Governments to ensure that the restored
tribal lands are really cultivated by the tribal cultivators . . . . . 2
and timely agricultural assistance is made available to them."
4.4 It has been widely suggested that in order to keep
smell and medi~ tribal farmers tree from the clutches of
exploiters (i.e. money lenders) arrangements fo~ granting . . . ~
loans through co-operatives and other financial institutions . . .
should be mad e. It has been felt that co-operation in the . . .
pa$t has failed in the tribal areas due to certain troubles . .
- like working of some vested interests, i'nadequate or no
landed securities with the tribals, no provision for giving
loans for unproductive purposes, etc, Mr. Puri suggests•
"Keeping these considerations in view, the rebuilding of
the co-operative movement has once again to be done from
co-operative credit societies and all mistakes Of the past
to be remedied. 3 Not only the money lenders exploit them
2, Report o:f' the Commissioner for Scheduled Caste end Scheduled Tribes - (24th Round) 1976-77, P,1)4.
). V.K. Purl - Planning for Tribal Development - Yojana - 1 June 1978.
59
by way of charging high interest rates and alienate their
land, the traders and· middlemen also exploit the tribals
in the field of marketing. Considering all these problems,
the Study Team constituted by the Government. ot India in
1971 (Bewa Committee) on the Co-operative Credit Structure
in Tribal Areas,· had suggested the unification of credit
end marketing structures, The unified structure should
provide for all se~vices including production credit (short
term, medium term and long term), supply input~ and essen
tial consumer - commodities, marketing of agricultural and
minor forest goods end credit for consumption needs and
social purpose~.4 Based on the suggestions of the Bawa
Committee the State Governments have started working large
sized-credit-cum-marketing societies in the tribal areas,
The successful working of these sooie~ies will go a long
way to save the tribal cultivators trom the clutches of
the exploi tors.
As it is difficult to cover all the tribal farmers
through co-operative societies, the nationalised banks
should be e.llowed to open more benks in the tribal areas
and start giving credits to the tribals at a ooncessional
rete.
4.5 An important suggestion which has been stressed by
many persons is the development of extension efforts which
would cover the entire agro-eoonomio lives of the tribals,
4. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture -(1976) -Part XIII, P,119,
60
Pal while outlining the problems of tribal agriculture in
the plains stated "Extension efforts are sporadic and are
half heartedl7 directed •••• concentrated drives are lacking,"
He suggested that extension services should b'e geared to
the needs of' the t.ribals. 5 For implementing improved agri
cultural practices in the tribal areas what is essential is
that proper environment is to be created so that the initia
tive and oo-operation ot the tribal population oan be gene-• 4 • - • • • • •
rated, This also requires extensive and liberal use of
extens:l.on servia es, The extension efforts should be con~
centrated on the most improved agricultural practices 6
rather than for package use of such practices, . . ~ .
It should be the duties of extension workers not only
to acquaint the tribal farmers with the improved praotioes
of egriculture, but also to help them in availing credit and
marketing fac111 ties through 1nst,1 tutional channels. The
shyness of the tribal farmers in establishing oontaots with
extension personnel should be removed by arranging frequent
visits ot such personnel for supplying inputs eto., at the
village level,
5. B.N~ Pal - Some Farming Practices of Indian Tribesmen -Agro Eoonomio Problems of Tribal India - Edited by M.L. Pel 1 . PP.101-2, · .
6, D. Srivestav and O,B, Singh - Agricultural Development end 'l'ribel Population of India - Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics.~ (1970), Vol, 25(3). B.N. SahU: - Guidelines for Development of Tribal Agrioulturf2!.1nindia- Indian Journal of .Agricultural Xoonomios- Vol.2,()) 1970,
61
4.6 The plains tribals live mainly on the fringes ot
torests in some ot the states. It is, therefore, suggested
that their agricultural economy must be married to the'
torest needs. Not merely to supplement their incomes, but
also to reduce the pressure on their small holdings, a
larger number could be encouraged to tap the torest produce.
As Dhebar Commission had put it the forest policy should
be recast to suit the tribal policy.?
The Scheme ot "Social Forestry" tor tribal areas as
has been suggested by the National Commission on Agriculture
has been men·'iioned in earlier chapters. The Commission
teels that the floheme has good employment potential and it
oan solve the basic needs ot farmers like tuel, fruits,
fodder and small timbers and poles tor housing etc.
The collection and marketing of minor forest produce
should be entrusted to forest labour co-operatives and . .. . . .. . .
forest contractors should be replaced by such co-operative
societies.g
4.7 It·has been suggested that there should be rigid
implementation of Act safeguarding the interests ot the
share-croppers. It possible a way should be tound to see
that they become tull-tledged land owners.9 Available
7. (i) Dhebar Commission (1961), (ii) B.N. Pal- Some Farming Practices of Indian Tribesmen - Agro-Eoo11omic Problems ot Tribal India- Edited by M.L. Patel- P.102,
8. Report ot the National Commission on Agriculture - (1976) Part XIII, P.115. .
9. S,K. Choudhury - Tribal Agriculture in the Plains - IJAE -Vol.25(1970). See also B.N.Pal -Some Farming Practices at Indian Tribesmen - Agro-Eco.Problems ot Tribal India -M. L. Pal , P. 1 02.
62
intormatlon reveals that a number Ot ~States haTe enaoted
laws oonterring owner·ship ·rights on th~ cultivating
tenants.- Though the data regarding the tribal benetioia
ries due to the enactment ot laws are not .presently avai
lable, an all India tigure shows that around 40 lakh
tenants have oome to aoquire ownership rights over 37 lakh
heotares of land. 10 A strict and speedy implementation ot
suoh laws in the communities where tribals are involved is
highly desirable.
4. 8 Consolidation ot holding and oo-o.perati ve terming
has also been suggested to form a wider basis ot agrarian
reorganisation,. especially in tribal areas. 11 Social and ~ ' . . - ...
economic homogeneity among the tribes makes tor better ·
possibility or suo cess of such an experiment. . ' - . . .
4.9 The diversification ot agriculture in the torm ot . .
piggery, poultry, dairy, eto. has been suggested to be en
couraged in the tribal areas as a solution to the problems
ot landless tribal and as a supplementary source ot income . 12
tor small tribal farmers. While implementing such pro-
grammes the aptitudes ot the tribals must be taken into
aooount - and in addition to helping the tribals in
10. India 1977-78- P.218.
·11.· B.N. Sahu- Indian Journal ot· Agricultural EconomicsVol. 25 - July 1970. S.K. Chou.dhury - Tribal Agri. in the Plains - (quoted above).. . · . ' '
12. National Commission on Agrio1ilture- (1976) Part XIII, P.116; S.K. Choudhury; B.N .. Sahu .. See their articles -Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics- Vol.25 1 1970.
6,)
providing necessary inputs, facilities of' marketing-of' the
produce must be consi'dered.
4.10 There are also suggestions regarding the promotional --1
measures f'or installation end extension of' forest based
and agriculture based small industries. Such programmes
should be taken up by the State, end educated tribels
should be given preference in training end employment over
others f'or employment, 1.3
Added to this there is e greet potentiality of'
oottege industries like basket making, weaving etc. which
cen be encouraged among the tribals. They can be developed
es subsidiary employment to agriculture.
4.11 The main approach to the solution of' the problem of'
shifting cultivation has been considered as permanently
settling the shifting cultivators and weaning them away f'rom
the praotioe of' shifting cultivation. Dheber Commission
(1961) f'elt that the terreoe cultivation "holds out immense
possibilities or improvement and in many pleoes throughout
the tribal areas it has been already taken up with enthu-. .
siesm." For proper implementation of' the soheme the follow
ing suggestions are to be. borne in mind.
(e) Terraced cultivation involves heavy initial expendi-
ture of' money end energy by the tribels, and it is, there
tore, necessary f'or government to give considerable
1.). B.N. Sehu - Guide Lines.f'or Development of' Tribal .Agriculture in India._ IJAE - July (1970).
. 6J,.
assistance both for builcUng up terraces end providing . 14
proper irrigation. ·For this purpose it has been
suggested to give subsidy to the tribal farmers who would
undertake the terrace cultivation.
(b) Considering the subsistence nature of the tribal
economy 1t is often suggested that the amount of. s~bsidy
should be substantial otherwise the tribals would not take
to settled cultivetio~ through terracing, In certain oases
subsidy covering 75 per cent of the total cost of terracing
even could not be successful to attract the tribals towards
terraced cultivation. 1S Where the lend is suitable for
terracing, but.the economy of the tribal is bad; it is
better that government should beer the entire cost of
terracing •.
(o) National Co~ssion on Agriculture sugge_sts 1;hat
smell scale irrigation may have to b~ arranged from hill
streams to irrigate the terraced field, Lend tenure system
should .be, set right - so that terraced irrigated fields_!s
not alienated to non-tribels. Terracing should be under
taken where there is possibility of continued financing of
maintenance and institutional errangeme~ts for irrigation,
se~d, fertiliser etc •. Lastly, effective extension education
14. Report ot 1;he Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Comm1 s si on - ( 1 961 ) 1 .3. 17 •.
1 5. D. Sri vasthav end c. B. Singh - Agri oul turel Development end.Tribal Population in India- Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economy, July 1976,
16 should be essential,
6.5
4,12 Land Colonisation Schemes whioh have been undertaken
by the governments is another alternative to divert the
tribals from shifting cultivation to more settled cultiva
tion, The following suggestions have been made for succe
ssf.! implementation of such schemes •
. (a) There should be adequate lane!, properly demarcated
and title ot deeds should be given to the tribals,
(b) Provision ot irrigation, other inputs to be invested
in iand should be made simultaneously,
(o) The settlers should be provided employment in clear-
ing land, cons~ru~t.ing houses, wells,.approaoh roads and
irrigation works andthe wages to be borne by the Government.
(d) Colony should be selt sufficient in every respect -
with provision of drinking water, schools, co-operative
societies, et~~ 1 7 4.1) For those settlers who are allotted horticUltural
holdings two facilities, considered important, have been
suggested,
(i) Assured markets at fixed prices tor fruits and
(ii) Supply ot tood and other necessities to the tribal
families at the controlled prioes. It 1s further suggested
that some alternative employment avenues would be necessary
16, National Commission on Agriculture - 1976 - Part IX, PP,147-15g, ·
17. Report of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission - Ch, 2,
66
to provide the temilies with some sustenance during the
slaok: seasons. 18 .Plantation orops ot.rubber, tea and
oottee have-also been ·suggested in plaoe ot shifting. culti
vation where terracing is not feasible. The gestation
period .ot horticultural plantation crops is long, There
would be need tor payment ot wages to the tribals during
this period, while the oash crop terms are maintained, as
a souroe ot livelihood,
1,14 Miss Wadia has suggested that the tribal tamilies .. in the hill areas should be organised under SFDA/MF~Sohemes
tor their requirement ot inputs, oredi ts, eto, _and tor the
marketing of t~eir produce. The tribals oan also be bene
fited from such sohemes which assist marginal termers in - -
undertaking ancillary oooup~tions like dairying, poultry,
p~ggery, agr?-industry, eto. , Under the SFD.A/end MF.AI., the
id~ntitied ~ulti~ators are encouraged to avail ot oredit
and marketing taoiliti~s. It is hoped that the oommunal.
nature ot cultivation under shifting cultivation would be . . . . ' . . .. .. . . -. . . - .
an _ideal s_etting tor oo-operati~e institutions to develop
once .the rehabilitation ot tribal families has been un.der
taken,19
4.1S Goswami and Saikia are ot the opinion that there are
18. F,K. Wadia - Control ot Shitting Cultivation ~n the North Eastern Region - Pra3nan - Vol, V No, ) -July-Sept. 1976. ·
19. F,K. Wadis - Control ot Shifting Cultivation in the North-Eastern Region - Prajnan - Vol, V No. 3 - · July-Sept, 1976.
67
certain social habits and customs, which affect the
improvement or agriculture in the tribal areas, They 20
suggest that these praotioes should be changed. Customs . '.
like payment or ·bri'J.~ prioe, expenses tor appeasement ot
. evil spirits during sickness, exavagant expenses during --=
marriage ceremonies, have ruined many ot the. families . .
eoonomicslly. In some or the tribal societies a person
atter. marriage is rea,uired to live in the house ot the bride, . .
Before marriage he is not expected to work hard in his
tether's farm as he knows that"atter marriage he will have
no rights ove.r th_e property ot :the parents,
A change in these customs and habits can be possible . - . ' ' . - '
only th:rough the spre.ad ot eduoat1.on in the tribal areas.
Opening or adult education centres end exten.sion ot publi-. .
oity programmes, and constant contact. ot extension workers
with the tribal termers will g~adually change their'outlook.
Reduction ot expenses during social ceremonies, end aboli
tion or bride price ere likely to help capital formation
among the tribal cultivators. Similarly, extension or medi
cal facilities will relieve the people from heavy expenditure
on ceremonial rites during diseases.
4.16 From the above discussions it is clear that agricul
tural develo~ment in the tr~bal areas requires an integrated
approaoh. Improvement or infra-structure, changes in the
20. P.C. Goswam! and P.D. SBikia- Problems ot,Ag:rioultural Development in Tribal Areas - Indian Journal ot Agri-cultural Eoonom!os, Vol.2S,. (1979). . .
. . ' . '
68
sooial habits and customs, creation. of en urge for develop
ment among the t~ibala are quite interlinked problems. On
the other hand agricultural development in its wide oonno
tation also includes animal husbandry, poultry farming,
forestry, sericulture, bee keeping, lao .oultivation, eto.
An integrated approach for agrioultural·development oalls
for a co-ordination among the governmental and non-govern
mental agenoies engaged in ~he development activities in
tribal areas.
Table I
Statement showing Total Population,. Adivasi Population, and Percentage of Adivasi Population to Total Population Statew!se (1971 Census).
States/Union Total Popu- S,T, Popu- Percentage of Territories lation lation S.T, Popula-
tion to the Total
1 2
India · 54,81,59,652 ),80,1,5,162 6.94
States:
1. Ant'lhra Pradesh . 4,),5,02, 708 16,.57,657 ).81
2. Assam* 1 • 46' 25. 1 52 16,06,648 12.84
). Bihar ,5,6),5),369 49,)2,767 8.?s 4. Gujarat 2,66,97,475 37.34,422 13.99 s. Haryana 1,00,36,808
6. Himachal Pradesh )4,60,434 1,41,610 4.09 7. Jammu and Kashmir 46, 16, 6)2 ... 8. Kar~ateka 2,92,99,014 2,31 '268' 0.79 9. Kerala 2,1),47,.375 2,69,)56 1.26
1 o. Madhya Pradesh 4, 16, 54. 119 8), 87.403 20.14 11. Maharashtra 5,04,12,2)5 29,.54,249 ;.86 12. Manipur 1 o, 72,75.3 ),34.466 )1,18 1). Meghalaya t1)Q' 11 .• 699 8,14,230 80.48 14. Nagaland .5,16,449 4 • .57. 602 - 88.61 1 s. Orissa 2, 19, 44,61; .50,71,937 2).11 16. Punjab 1 '3 5. 51' 060 17. Rajesthe.n 2,5?,65,806 )1,25,506 12.1)
70
Table I (contd.)
1 2 .3
18. Sikim 2,09,84.)
19. Tamilnadu 4,11 t 99,164 ),11,515 0.76
20. Tripura 15, 56,.342 4,50,544 · 2S~ 9.S
21. Uttar Pradesh 8, 8). 4.1 • 14.4 1,98,.565 0,22
22. West Bengal 4,4),12,011 2.5,)2,269 .S.72 Union Territories:
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
1,1.5,13.3 18,102 1 .s. 72
2. Arunachal Pradesh 4,67,.511 ),69,408 79.02 ). Chandigarli 2, 57. 2.51 -4. Dadra and Nagar 7Jh170 64,44.5 66.89
Haveli
.s. Delhi 40,65,698 -6. Goa, Daman, Diu 8,.57,771 7,6.54 0.69 7. Lakshadweep )1,810 29,.540 92.86 s.. Mizoram ),)2,)90 ),1),299 94.2S 9. Pondioheri 4,71,707
* Assam includes NEFA. -
Table II
Percentage Distribution ot Scheduled Tribe Workers by Employment in Agriculture and Allied Activities
States/Union CUltiva- Agricul- Total % ot wor- Livestock,Fores- Total % ot Others Territories tors tural la- kers engaged in try,tishery,hunt- workers emp-
bourers agr.activities ing,plantat1on, loyed in egr •. orchards and and allied allied activities activities
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (2+3) (lt+5)
States:
1. Andhra Pradesh 36.1 49.1 8;.2 4.0 89.2 10 •. 8
2. Assam 85.3 7.1 92.4 0.6 93.0 7.0
3. -Bihar 61.9 28.1 90.0 1. 2 91.2 a. a 4. Gujarat 48.3 42.) 90.6 1.0 91.6 8.4
Himachal Pradesh 82.; ).1 8;.6 ;.9 91.; 8.5 -..:1 ;. ....
6. Kerala 17.7 62.6 80.) 7.9 88.2 11. g . -
7. Madhya Pradesh 62.2 )).2 95-.lt 1.0 96.4 ).6
a. Maharashtra 41.2 ;1. 9 93.1 1.8 94.9 ,;.1
9· Manipur 89.6 4~0 93.6 1.0 94.6 ;.4
10. Meghalaya 78.4 9.6 aa.o 2.' 90.; 9. 5
11. Mysore 26.) 45.0 71.) 10.9 82.2 17.8 (Karns taka)
12. Nagaland 89.6 1.0 90.6 0.2 90.8 9.2
1). Orissa 52.4 36.7 89.1 1. 9 91.0 9.0
14. Rajasthan 81.7 11.; 93.2 2.4 95.6 4.-4
Table II (contd.)
1 2
15. Temilnadu 44.9 37.3 82 .. 2 10.6 92.8 7.2
16. Tripura .. 75.4 20.1 . 95.5 1. 2 .96 .• 7 3..3
17. Utter Pradesh 78.5 8.4 86.9 2.2 89 .. 1. 10 .. 9
18. West Bengal . 31 .. 2 49.0 80 •. 2 10.9 91.1 8 .. 9
Union Territories:
1. Andaman &. Nico. N 0.1 0.1 55.7 55~8 44..2 Islands
2.· Arunachal Pradesh 94. 8 1. 5 96.3 0.2 96.5 3. 5 .. ..
3. Dadra &. N.Haveli 76.9 18.3 95.2 1.1 96.3 3.1 . ..
4 .• Goa, Deman &. Diu 19.2 47.1 66.3 6. 5 72.8 27.2 ..
5. Le.kshedweep 0.1 -.· 0.1 30.7 30.8 69.2 -..3 N
6. Mizoram 92.1 0.4 92.5 o. 2 92.7 7.3
. India· 57 •. 6 33.·0 90.6 2.4 93.'0 1.·o
N • Negligible.
Source - Calculated from Census ot India 1971,Ser1es I,Part II-o(l).
1.
2.
).
4.
s.
TJ
Table III
Percentage ot Irrigated to Total Cultivated Area under Tribal Farming
State Percentage ot irrigated to the total cropped area in the tribal district and State as a whole
Tribal District State
' 1 2 .3
GuJarat Nil to 1. 5' 6.2
Madhya Pradesh 0 • .3 to 2. s 6.4
Maharashtra o.6 to 4 • .3 5.6
Orissa 0 • .3 to 6.) 14.)
Rajasthan 2.0 to 4.0 12.0
Source - Compiled by I.P. Singh trom the Report ot the Special Working Groups on Co-operation tor Backward Classes and published in Indian Journal ot Agricultural Economics -Vol• XXV. No. ), 1970.
74
Table IV .
Gross Value of Crops per Aore in Tribal and Nob-Tribal Districts ot Madhya Pradesh
Non-Tr1bel Tribal Per Acre Gross Velue of Distriots Districts Crops (1963-64) in Rs.
1 2
Mandsaur 151' 5
Jhabua 131.3
Khargone 128.4
Dhar 138.9
Jabal pur 141.9
Mandla 96.4
Shadol 100.1
Rei pur 213.7
Bas tar 173.4
Durg 145. 6
Raigarh 184.2
SurguJa 150.9
Source - A Study ot The Tribal People and Tribal Areas of Madhya Pradesh, Government of Madhya Pradesh 1967, PP,2-22- Compiled by I.P. Singh- and published in his Article "Development of Agriculture in Tribal Areas" - Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics- Vol,25, 1970.
75
Table V
Percentage Distribution of Total Workers among Scheduled Tribe Population as Cultivators, Agrioul~ tural Labourers and other Workers in 1961 and 1971.
Cultivators 1961 1971
1 2
Agricultural Labourers 1961 1971
3 4
Other Workers 1961 1971
5 6
India 68.15 57.6 19.73 33.0 12.12 9. 4
Source- (i) Census·of India 1961, Vol.I, Part II o(i) PP. 547-555.
(ii) Census of India 1971, Series I, Part II c(i).
Table VI
Purpose-wise Distribution of Debt per Tribal Family
Purpose Amount (Rs.) Percentage 2
1. Agriculture 2,7.42 39.9
2. Consumption
(a) Social and Religious 71.62 11.1
(b) Domestic Consumption 24.3.24 37.7
3. Others 72.91 11.3
'l'otal 645.19 100.0
Source - A Study of Tribal People and Tribal Areas of Madhya Pradesh, Vol.VI, No. 2,D~oember 1966, P.1o6.
Table VII
Souroes of Loan (Perlakhemundi Agenoy Area) 1971.
Sources of Loan Percentage ot Loan ·
1 2
1. Tribal· and Rural Welfare Deptt. 0,2
2. Other Govt. Agencies other than 7~6 Co-operative Societies
). Co-operative Sooiett·" s. s 4. Unofficial Co-operative Society 0.5
s. Tribal Creditors ()6.9 862 t49~3 6. Non-Tribal Creditors
Source- Survey made by D.C. Mohanty end published in Tribal Problems ot·To-day and Tomorrow ~ · Saberi Cultural Society, Bhubaneswar, P.80.
Table VIII
Statement showing Cases o~ Land Alienation identi~ied, Cases disposed o~ snd Extent o~ Lands Restored to Scheduled Trimes in some o~ the States
Sr. No.
78
TeDle IJ:
Names or Tribes and their Population ~reot1s1ng Sh~ftl~- Cult1TPt1on, Ar~a• 1n whiob this Proot1o3 is !oll~ed in the States/Union Terr1tort;1 e~d Aor~a~e under Sh1ftin1 CUlt!. Te ti on
Nems or th<J S<;ate/ Union Territories
2
N~~e ot the Trib~s 'lotel Population depent'!ing on shifting oul that1on
( Approrlm11tely)
Tot.al ,.c !'ea.;e of land for el'l1ft1ng ouh.1Tflt1 en (Aml!O!IllJ)
Name of the d1atr1ota,d1T1B1ons, areas where shifting oultlTRtion is o~trried 011
1. Andhra Pr,.doah Btagete,Geoabes,Kammars, Konde,Kotiges,Koyas,KondaKepus,Kon~e Reodie,Kono~rhors, ~al1£,~enna Dhora, Nayaks,ParnJas,Rena,SaTaras
2,00,000 9~,oco Srikekulam,tg~noy N. A. traota of Vlaakha-patcnam r1at. 1 Aaat GodnTIIri T'1 tlt., West G~dPTari Diet.
2. Aasll!ll Chakma, Gero, Je1nt1a, Khesl, Lulunt;, idiklr, )A!zo, Nag a
5,08,800 G"ro lilll !1 1 U!lit.ed m ll pa .. dJ,
).
lt.
s.
6.
7.
~-
9.
~
1 o.
Biber
Gujeret
Kerela
..:edhre Pra~esb
Kallred
MehR:re~t;!"l! _
~sore
Orissa
West Bengal
J.!anipUl'
'l'r1pura
EdrJia,Kherla,N~Jrwe,~al- 1,15,000 paharis,Seurla pebaria
Bhll, KU!loi,Kol:an:: s,MaYohl, 25,000 • v ... rhll
Irular,Kurumbas,Kurl Chiane, 1 O, 000 Mu~ug11r 1 PaniJ'!D
Agarl;ys, &lg11, Bh~ria 1 Gond, )0, OVO Korwa,Kod9ku,Mad1e,MaJhawar, l'.awasl
Ks~ar,Kurumbc~,L4,lasar, ~,200 Pula~ense,Pen1yen
Halldcl, Kstka rl, Kunot, Kuma r1, • Maretna,~ria Gonn,The~xr, W~tkk~la
a~ttekurubll,lenu~rub&,!unola, 1~,000 JCu-n,kllrat1, Sollg11ra
dbuiya or Bhuyan,Bc~da ~unJ1e, ~adaba,Jatavu,Juanca,4ond• 9,35,700 koye,Khanda,Yotia,reraJ~. Sacra
Toto N.J...
~~l,~bui,Kacha Naga, 1,~),000 :wurtn.:;, T&nguin•l ~»-.1 c 1-.·~.-~o:-,.~.o:,
Che .IelJa , c;e ro, Hal• •,; eM t.a, K•1.it.i 1 Lushs1 1 .NI(t,!UlOt1a, BeaJlt!, Tr1,11•1re
'l'ot.el -
95. 501
1.36
72, )UO•
10,000
.4,100
),200
1111
2,500
1.,00,000
II. l.
5lt,OOO
1,16,9\.)0
Jilldr en<'l North Ca- ootton,oren~oa,
ohar H1ll 1 UnitG4 oh1111n,phn-.bluul an<'l Jainth t.ntion, Jaru, Hllls,Ne~,;ll Hill and 'fegetRblea D1et. ,!.lzo ( Lusllel) Hill !iat.,~la!n Mat. c:ot umrup, Now~ang of Caub11r
Sint,4bhum,Santal P'lddy,.,Uleta, Prag:Jnaa, i:ta!lohl V~g,.t.ebla,
Diet.. p ...........
Dar.;; T'h t, 1111~ 801118 Pel!~)·,l'Uleta,
perr.e of Surat T'l~ Cllll"&f'la.
Atte~a~dy Amaon, F.Ul Pe.,~r. Vallu Venand Teluk, .. Ul'ltr.,Pulaea Male 011 r I'h t, Ollaee~a.
rurg,~aatai,Chhlnd- Ulleta,OU· Wllra,Cbenda,Hele· seed a, t>ulaaa, &bat.,Nenf'l1e,Ralgerb
Co1~D•tore Plrt., t:tlly P"'l!t1y, !11lg1r1 Dht.. J,:llleta.
Kol11ba riet,Soutb Pallt1y,llt \leta Chanda D1•1don, Clllaeel!a. Jan;trh ~•llJ-~..-n.
Interior Mounta1ne- )'1lletc,01l oua tr~ota of ~l- seal! e 1 i';h lll1ea, «•- •• .- 8011~11 .IU!n•re t'ia t.
XeonJba,Sunf'lerg~r~ Palld:p,J•uJ.aea, Dh&u..ll:e.oel, 8e1Lbelptr, 1'u Mll.,r1 0 1 Ot II• Ka1a~DII1,G~nJe~, ~~:•r,rr•1t f.oraJ.out treea.
Jel pe\ a uri r1. at.. If,'·
In t.b., if1 11 Nat. pao41!J 1 lK1lleta, of vn~on T"'rr1to- Pot to, Cotton, r1aa l.ilaeeda.
~~~~~r,lbowe1,ra1la- Paf'lf'IJ,Cottoo, ahat.er, X&aa.lpo.;r, Jute{ 3up~t ro •n• !ll 11 ::o-1'1Jla~;,.,., Ur'a1_plll', Yru t 1·r.,aa, Sor.arrlra,d.,lon1a ~ V•&•t.eblea. Amarpur 8QT-t1Tn.
Sou.roea - Report c,f '!b.-. Coa.rlae1onar for o:>che~ ...lall Crate a en~ ~cbfl/1111 ed Trl bfla - 1960-61, Pege 11:-119 end The Report. of ~he ~eb11r Co-aiaa1oa 1901 (Celeulatlona are oorre~ted).
Rote - • II.A. •
Both for .:iujara~ an4 Waharaahtra. !lot e..-ailoJ;;le.
S,No.
1
1,
2,
),
79
Table X
Statement showing Lent". per Person Practising Shifting Cultivation in different States.
States Land (Aoree)
2
Andhra Pradesh 0,46
Assam 0,52
Bihar 0,004
4. * GuJarat 2,69
s. 6.
7. 8.
9.
1 o. 11."
Kerala 1,00
Madhya Pradesh 1, 47 ·Madras 1.45
Mysore 0,16
Manipur 0,29
Orissa 0.4)
Tripura 1,22
India o.so
* Both tor GuJarat an4 Maharashtra,
Souroe - Compiled from the Report ot the Commissioner for Sohet'luled Caste and Scheduled Tribes -1960-61, PP,116-119 end Report of the Dhebar Commission 1961,
80
Table n Carrying !'enstty of Population in Three Regions of Shifting CUltivation
Mizo Keonjhar Hills lUlls
1 2
Rainfall in inches 13.5 6.5
Average slope in degree 22 19.3 Shifting oyoles in years 6 12
Years ot holding the land 1 2 tor oul ti vati on
Total area surveyed in sores 4.7190 2.54.1 Available cultivable land 1961 .s 1364. in sores
Percentage ot cultivable 3lt. g .54.6 lsnd within total area
Production rate or orops in quintals per sore
;.6s 2.37
Present .density ot popula-tion per square mile
13~2 63.2
Carrying capacity or popu-lat1on per square mile
J7.s 24.7
Abujhawar Hills
.so 16, s
Hi
2
2164-.S
6~t77
29,0
3 • .57
6.1
u, .• 3
Souro e - Bose Se.radi ndu - Carrying Capeoi ty of Land under Shifting Cultivation - Asiatic Society alae - quoted by R.N. Tripathy in his Article n .Agri oul tural Problems in Tri bel Areas n · -Perspective ot Tribal Agriculture - NICD -Hyderebad, PP, 191-194,
81
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