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Donald Poland, MS, AICP
Introduction to GeographyLecture Notes
Introduction
Chapter 1
The Nature of Geography
Geography as the spatial scienceThe study of spatial variation
How & why things differ from place to place on the surface of the earth
Spatial
Essential modifier“Spatial behavior”“Spatial process”
MeaningThe way things are distributedThe way movements occurThe way processes operate over the whole or part of the earth’s surface
Location
Absolute LocationMathematical location
Latitude & longitudeOther grid systems
Relative LocationSpatial interconnection & interdependence
Site & Situation
SiteThe physical & cultural characteristics & attributes of the place itself
SituationThe external relations of a locale
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Direction
Absolute DirectionCardinal points (N,S,E,&W)
Relative Direction“Out West”“Back East”
Distance
Absolute DistanceStandard units such as miles or kilometers
Relative DistanceTime
“20 minutes from here”
Physical & Cultural Attributes
Physical AttributesClimate, soil, water supply, mineral resources, terrain features
“natural landscape”
Cultural AttributesLanguage, religion, agricultural patterns, food, music
“cultural landscape”
Places
Attributes of places are always changingInterrelations between places
AccessibilityConnectivitySpatial diffusionGlobalization
Regions
Areas of spatial similarityFormal Regions
Uniformity in one or a limited number of related physical or cultural features
“Columbia Plateau” or “The Corn Belt”
Functional RegionsA spatial system
Trade areas or transportation networks
Geography Themes & Standards
Five Fundamental ThemesNational StandardsFour Traditions
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Five Fundamental Themes
LocationPlaceRelationships within placesMovementRegions
Four Traditions
Earth-Science TraditionCulture-Environment TraditionLocational (or Spatial) TraditionArea Analysis (or Regional) Tradition
Fig.1.14
Maps
Chapter 2
The Grid System
PolesEquatorLatitudeLongitude
Latitude
Angular distance north or south of the equatorMeasured in degrees
0°-90° North or SouthEach degree of latitude = 69 miles
Slightly longer near the polesSlightly shorter near equator
Minutes (’) 1.15 miles & seconds (”) 101 feet
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Latitude (Continued)
Prime MeridianPasses through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, EnglandSelected at an International Conference in 1884
Other meridiansTrue N-S lines connecting the polesFarthest apart at equator
Longitude
Angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian
0°-180° East or WestInternational Date Line generally follows the 180th
meridianDistance between lines decreases towards the polesTime depends on longitude
Each time zone ≈ 15° of longitude
Map Projections
Transforming a globe surface to a flat surface always results in distortionProperties of Map Projections
AreaShapeDistanceDirection
Area
Equal-area or equivalent projections represent areas in correct proportion to the earth’s areaBut, the shape of the area is distorted to achieve this
See Figure 2.5
Shape
No map can provide correct shape for large areas, but some can accurately portray shapes for small areasMaps that have true shapes are known as conformalA map cannot be both conformal and equivalent (equal-area)
DistanceDistance relationships are almost always distorted on a map
Some maintain true distances along one direction or along certain lines
Equidistant projections show true distances in all directions, but only from one or two central points
See Figure 2.9A map cannot be both equidistant and equal-area
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Direction
Directions between all points cannot be shown without distortionAzimuthal projections enable a map user to measure the distance from a single point to any other pointAzimuthal projections may also be equivalent, conformal, or equidistant
Types of ProjectionsGlobe properties
All meridians are equal in lengthAll meridians converge at the polesLines of latitude are parallel to the equator and to each otherParallels decrease in length as one nears the polesMeridians and parallels intersect at right anglesThe scale on the surface of the globe is the same everywhere in all directions
Cylindrical Projections
Mercator ProjectionA lot of distortion towards the poles
Shapes are fairly accurate, but areas are widely distorted
Great CircleRhumb lines – straight line is true compass bearing – the only projection
Conic Projections
The cone is closest in form to ½ of a globeConic projections are widely used to depict hemispheres or smaller parts of the earth
See Figure 2.6a
Planar Projections
Plane tangent to the surfacePlanar projections are equidistant from the tangent pointCommonly used for polar areasGnomonic projections show all great circles as straight lines
Other Projections
Goode’s HomolosineRobinsonOvals, hearts, trapezoids, stars, etc.
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Scale
Ratio between the measurement of something on a map and the corresponding measurement on the earthRepresented in three ways
VerballyGraphicallyRepresentative fraction (RF)
1:25,000 or 1/25,000
Scale (continued)
Large-scale maps show a small areaVery detailed
Small-scale maps show large areasVery generalized
Types of Maps
TopographicSurface areas in relatively high detailPhysical & human featuresUSGS quadrangles
NRCAN in CanadaContour lines & intervals
Shaded relief
Types of Maps (continued)Thematic Maps
Point symbolsDot densityProportional circles
Area symbolsUsually different colors or patterns Choropleth maps
Line symbolsNon quantitative, such as roadsQuantitative, such as isolinesFlow-line maps
Remote SensingDetecting the nature of an object from a distanceAerial photography
OrthophotomapsFalse-color images
Nonphotographic imageryThermal scannersRadarSatellites
Satellite Imagery
LandsatFirst launched 1972
1 hour 40 minute orbitEarth coverage every 16 days50 ft. resolution
SPOT
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Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Five major componentsData inputData managementData manipulationAnalysis functionsData output
Civilian Spy SatellitesDo you think that the availability of the new, detailed satellite images is a potential threat to national security? Might access to images of their enemies make belligerent countries more dangerous than they already are? Why or why not?
In what ways might access to satellite imagery stem the tides of environmental and social destabilization and foster peace.
Should the federal government, which licenses the satellites, be allowed to exercise “shutter control”, cutting off image sales during wartime? Why or why not?
Physical Geography:Landforms
Chapter 3
Earth Materials
Igneous RocksSedimentary RocksMetamorphic Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Cooling & solidification of molten rockUnderground molten rock is magmaAbove ground molten rock is lava
Composition of magma & lava + cooling rate determines the minerals that formGranite, basalt, pumice, obsidian
Sedimentary Rocks
Composed of particles of gravel, sand, silt, & clayPressure & cementing processes cause rocks to formLarge particles form conglomeratesSand forms sandstoneSilt & clay form shale or siltstoneOrganic materials form limestone or coal
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Metamorphic Rocks
Formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks by earth forces that produce heat, pressure, or chemical reactions
Shale becomes slateLimestone can become marbleGranite may become gneiss
Geologic Time
Earth formed 4.7 billion years agoCurrent landforms are often millions of years oldEarly 20th century work by geologist Alfred Wegener on continental drift helped to explain how landforms developed over time
Movements of the Continents
Plate tectonics theoryEarth’s crust is outer, lighter portion of the lithosphereLithosphere broken into 12 large and numerous small plates that slide & drift over the asthenospherePlate movement may be caused by convection
Plate Boundaries
Divergent plate boundariesPlates move away from each other
Transform boundariesPlates slide by each other horizontally
Convergent boundariesPlates move towards each other
Plate collisions can cause earthquakes along faults
Convergent Movement
Convergent plates can cause deep-sea trenches and continental-scale mountain ranges
Heavy, but thin, oceanic crust tends to be forced under continental crustDeep trenches form at these subduction zonesVolcanoes and earthquakes are common in subduction zones
For example, the Ring of Fire
Tectonic Forces
DiastrophismGreat pressure causing plates to fold, twist, warp, break, and compress
VolcanismThe force that transports heated material to or toward the earth’s surface
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Diastrophism
Broad warpingFoldingFaulting
EscarpmentsRift valleysTsunami
Volcanism
Strato or composite volcanoSteep sides
Shield volcanoGentle slopesNo explosion
Gradational Processes
Reduction of the land’s surfaceTypes
WeatheringMass movementErosion
Weathering
MechanicalFrost actionSalt crystalsRoot action
ChemicalOxidationHydrolysisCarbonation
Mass Movement
“Mass wasting”Downslope movement of material due to gravityAccumulation of rock particles at the base of hills is talus
Erosional Agents & Deposition
Running waterAmount of precipitationLength & steepness of the slopeKind of rock & vegetation
Forms landscapes such as deltas
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Stream LandscapesHumid areas
WaterfallsV-shaped channelsFloodplainsMeandering streams
Oxbow lakes, natural levees, flooding
Arid areasLack of vegetation increases erosional forcesTemporary lakesAlluvial fansDeep, straight-sided arroyos (wadi)Buttes & mesas
Groundwater
Aquifers form in zone of saturationUpper zone is the water table
Can dissolve soluble materials to form stalactites, stalagmites, & sinkholesKarst topography
Glaciers
Covered a large part of the planet only 10-15,000 years agoLarge body of ice moving down a slope or spreading outward on a land surfaceCan move as much as 1 meter per day
Glacial Landforms
Glacial troughsU-shaped valleysFiords
TarnsCirquesArêtesOutwash plainMoraines
Waves, Currents, & Coastal Landforms
WavesDeposition & erosionSandbars
Longshore currentsForms beaches & spits
Coral reefs & atollsFormed by the secretion of calcium carbonate by coral organisms in sunny, warm water areas
Wind
Abrasive action of sand & dust sculpts the landscapeDunes
BarchanLoess
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Landform Regions
A large section of the earth’s surface where a great deal of homogeneity occurs
Physical Geography:Weather & Climate
Chapter 4
Air TemperatureSolar energy
InsolationSun angleNumber of daylight hours
1. Amount of water vapor2. Cloud cover3. Land vs. water4. Elevation above sea level5. Degree & direction of air movement
Earth inclinationAxis of the earth tilts at ≈ 23.5°Rotation once every 24 hours21 June / summer solstice
Vertical rays of the sun at 23.5 ° NTropic of Cancer
Northern hemisphere tilted towards the sun21 December / winter solstice
Vertical rays of the sun at 23.5 ° S Tropic of Cancer
Equinoxes on March 21 & September 21
Reflection & Reradiation
Clouds & light surfaces reflect energyReradiation also contributes to lost energyWater stores more energy than land
Land heats & cools more rapidlyWater heats & cools more slowly
The Lapse Rate
6.4°C per 1000 meters3.5°F per 1000 feet
Temperature inversionsCooler air trapped below warmer air
Can contribute to smog problems
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Air Pressure & Winds
Air pressure is higher near the earth’s surfacePressure measured by a barometer
Pressure gradient forces air to blow from high to low pressure areasConvection
Warm air risesCool air sinks
Land & sea breezesWarmer air over land replaced by cooler air over water
Mountain & valley breezesCooler air in mountains sinks into valley (often at night)Warmer air in valleys rises into mountains (often during the day)
Coriolis effectWind veers towards the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
Global Air-Circulation Pattern
Equatorial low pressureNortheast trades WesterliesSubpolar lowPolar easterliesPolar high
Ocean Currents
Roughly corresponds to global wind direction patternsDifferences in water density also cause movementCoriolis effectLandmasses are a barrier to currents
Moisture in the Atmosphere
PrecipitationRain, sleet, snow, or hailSupersaturation leads to droplets if condensation nuclei are present
Relative humidityA percentage measure of moisture content of the air, expressed as the amount of water vapor present relative to the maximum that can exist at the current temperature
Types of Precipitation
Convectional precipitationResults from rising, heated, moisture-laden air
Orographic precipitationWarm air is forced to rise by hills or mountains
Cyclonic, or frontal precipitationWhere cool and warm air masses meetAir Masses: Large bodies of air with similar temperature and humidity – Leading edge of an air mass as it moves is a front
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Storms
Midlatitude cyclonesHurricanes
TyphoonsBlizzardsTornadoes
Climate
A generalization based on daily & seasonal weather conditions
Soil FormationVariation in soil types due to five major factors
Geology – Underlying rockClimate – Effects of temperature & precipitationTopography – Elevation of land & slopeBiology – Living & dead plants & AnimalsTime – Length of time the four above factors have been interacting
Soil Profile & Horizons
O-horizon – Surface layer – organic manterialA-horizon – Fertile topsoilE-horizon – Water removes minerals/lighterB-horizon – deposits from the E-horizonC-horizon – Were weathering erodes bedrockR-horizon – Bedrock - unaltered
Soil Properties
CompositionOrganic & inorganic
TextureProportion of sand, silt, & clay
StructureSize, shape, and alignments of clumps
Soil Classification
Natural VegetationNatural Vegetation Regions
Tropical rain forestMediterranean or chaparralSemidesertDesertPrairie / steppeDeciduous woodlandsConiferous woodlandsTundra
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Climate Classification
Köppen Climate TypesA - TropicalB – Semidesert & DrylandC – Humid MidlatitudeD – Humid MidlatitudeE – Arctic & SubarcticH - Highlands
Tropical Climates (A)Tropical Rain Forest (Af)Savanna (Aw,Am)
Hot Deserts (BWh)Midlatitude Deserts & Semideserts (BWk, BS)
Steppe
Dryland Climates
Humid Midlatitude Climates
Mediterranean (Cs)Cold, wet winters & dry, hot summers
Humid Subtropical (Cfa)Marine West Coast (Cfb)Humid Continental (Dfa,Dfb)
Climate Change
Long cyclesQuicker changes
Small changes in upper-air wind movementsVolcanic eruptionsHuman activity
The Geography of Natural Resources
Chapter 5
Resource Terminology
Renewable resourcesPotentially renewable resources
Nonrenewable resourcesResource reserves
Proven reserves
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources
Crude OilCoalNatural GasOil Shale & Tar SandsNuclear Energy
Fission vs. fusion
Geography & Public PolicyWhich of the following Statements do you agree with: (from text)
Do you think Congress should raise CAFÉstandards?Should SUV’s and minivans be subject to less stringent standards than passenger cars?Do you think SUV’s should be exempt from the Fuel Standards?
Renewable Energy Resources
Biomass FuelsWoodWaste
Hydroelectric PowerSolarGeothermalWind
Geography & Public Policy
Dammed Trouble
Questions in Book
Food Resources
Food is plentiful but poorly distributed worldwideShortages can lead to malnutrition, which can have health, social, and political consequencesExpansion of cultivated areas
Most of the planet is not suitableMuch of available land is in tropical rainforest areas
Food Resources (continued)
Increasing yieldsWheat, rice, & corn are keyImproved yields account for most of the gains in food supply since the 1950sIncreasing yields is more costlyYields in many irrigated or fertilized areas have already been maximized
Increasing fish consumption may help solve widespread protein deficiencies
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Land Resources
SoilsWetlandsForests
Domestic forestsTropical forests
Resource Management
Environmentally sustainable economiesSoil erosion cannot exceed formationForest destruction cannot exceed regenerationSpecies extinction cannot exceed evolutionFish catches cannot exceed the regenerative capacity of fisheriesPollutants cannot exceed the capacity of the system to absorb them
Population Geography
Chapter 6
Population Geography
Focuses on the number, composition, and distribution of human beings in relation to variations in the conditions of earth space.
Demography: Is the statistical study of human population, in its concern with spatial analysis, the relationship of numbers to areas.
Population Growth
Over 6.4 billion peopleAbout 77 million increase per year since 1990China & India account for 38% of the world’s populationU.S. to hit 300 million tomorrow @ 7:46 AM
Population Definitions
RateCohortCrude Birth Rate (CBR)Total Fertility Rate (TFR)Crude Death Rate (mortality rate) (CDR)Infant Mortality Rate
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Population Pyramids
Rapid growthStabilityDeclineDisrupted growth
Growth
Rate of natural increaseDoubling times
Demographic Transition Model
Western ExperienceStage 1: High births, high deathsStage 2: High births, declining deathsStage 3: Declining births, low deathsStage 4: Low births, low deaths(Stage 5: Deaths higher than births)
A Divided World Converging
The population history of Europe is not necessarily predictive of what will happen in the developing worldWestern technologies, medicines, & public health lower death rates quicker today than in the pastStill some areas with very high fertility rates
Demographic Equation
Regional population change is a function of natural change (difference between births & deaths) and net migration (differences between in-migration and out-migration).Births – Deaths + Immigration – Emigration = Population Growth. When this equals out, it is known as zero population growth.
World Population Distribution
90% of all people live north of the equator, 2/3 in midlatitudesA large majority occupies a small part of the land surfacePeople congregate in lowland areasMore people live on the continental margins, near oceans
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Population Concentrations
East Asia ClusterChina, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan
South Asia ClusterIndia, Bangladesh, Pakistan
EuropeNortheastern United States / SW Canada
Population DensityThe relationship between number of inhabitants and the area they occupyCrude density
# of people per unit of landPhysiological density
# of people per unit of arable landAgricultural density
Excludes city population from the physiological density calculation
Overpopulation
A value judgment reflecting an observation or a conviction that an environment or territory is unable adequately to support its population.Overpopulation is a reflection of carrying capacity
The # of people an area can support on a sustained basis given the prevailing technology
Can be equated with conditions of life
Urbanization
Cities have grown rapidly in the past 50 yearsUrban growth raises issues of housing, sanitation, employment, transportation, etc.Some of the developing world cities, often surrounded by concentrations of people living in uncontrolled settlements, slums, and shantytowns, are among the most densely populated areas in the world.
Population Data & Projections
Accurate & precise data is often difficult to obtain, but census quality is slowly improving worldwideProjections are based on assumptions and are not forecasts
Population Controls
Malthus / Neo-MalthusiansPopulation will outstrip foodPopulation growth must be controlled
Fertility can be difficult to controlCultural preferences for large familiesRejection of Western plansBelief that technology will provide more food
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Cultural Geography
Chapter 7
Components of Culture
Culture is learned, not biologicalA complexly interlocked web of behaviors
Culture traitsCulture complexesCulture regionsCulture realm
Interaction of People & Environment
Environmental DeterminismPossibilismCultural landscapes
The earth’s surface as modified by human action
Subsystems of Culture
The Technological SubsystemArtifacts
The Sociological SubsystemsSociofacts
The Ideological SubsystemsMentifacts
Culture Change
InnovationSpatial Diffusion
SyncretismAcculturation
Amalgamation theoryAssimilation
Language
Language familiesIndo-European, etc.
Language spread & changeWord meaning, pronunciation, vocabulary, & syntax
Standard & variant languagesDialects
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Language & Culture
Gender differencesLanguage as a unifying forceBilingualism / Multilingualism
Religion
Dominant in some societies, less so in othersAffects social roles, economics, politics, etc.
Classification of Religions
UniversalizingSeek to transmit beliefs to othersBuddhism, Christianity, Islam
EthnicStrong territorial & cultural tiesJudaism, Hinduism, Shinto
Tribal or TraditionalSmall, ethnic religions
Judaism
MonotheisticEthnic religionOrigins in Southwest Asia about 3,000-3,500 years agoDispersion after 1st century AD (CE)
Known as the DiasporaSynagogues are centers of worship
Christianity
Origins in Southwest Asia 2,000 years agoGrounded in Jewish religious beliefsUniversalizing; grew rapidlySplit by dissolution of the Roman EmpireReformation in the 15th & 16th centuries
IslamJudeo-Christian rootsMohammed lived in the early 7th century in modern-day Saudi Arabia
Islamic calendar begins in 622 AD with the flight to Medina (Hegira)
Five PillarsKoran
Should be read in ArabicSuccession disputes led to Sunni / Shi’ite split
Sunnis account for 80-85% of MuslimsWorship centered on the mosque
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HinduismPossibly 5,000 years old1 billion adherents
80% of IndiansSpread into Southeast AsiaNo single creed or doctrineCaste systemDharmaA lot of rites, ceremonies, festivals, and gatheringsTemples & shrines are important
Buddhism
Began in the 6th century BC in what is now northern IndiaSiddhartha Gautama was the Buddha, “Enlightened One”Four noble truthsUniversalizingSpread to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, China, Korea, & Japan
Ethnicity
Refers to the ancestry of people who share some common characteristic
Language, religion, race, national origin, customsTerritorial segregation
Gender & Culture
Gender is a social term, not biologicalGreatly affected by culture
Traditional roles changed by industrial revolution & modern society
Culture Realms
Regionally discrete areas that are more alike internally than they are like other realms Spatial Interaction
Chapter 8
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Distance & Spatial Interaction
Spatial Interaction
Distance decay
Critical distance
Barriers to Interaction
DistanceCostPhysical environmentCulture
Religion, language, gender, political systemsPsychological
Individual Activity Space
TerritorialityActivity spaceMental MapsStage in LifeMobilityOpportunities
Diffusion & Innovation
Contagious diffusion
Hierarchical diffusion
Spatial Interaction & Technology
Automobiles
Telecommunications
Migration
A relocation of both residential environment and activity spaceThe decision to migrate
Push factorsPull factors
Place utilityMigration issues
Anti-immigration laws
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Barriers to Migration
Physical barriersEconomic barriersCost factorsCultural factorsPolitical barriers
Patterns of Migration
Migration fieldsChannelized patternsReturn migrationHierarchical migration
GlobalizationThe increasing interconnection of all parts of the worldEconomic Integration
International bankingTransnational corporations (TNCs)Global marketing
Political IntegrationSupranationalismNongovernmental organizationsNews media & Internet
Cultural Integration
Political Geography
Chapter 9
States, Nations, & Nation-States
Political Geography
StateNationNation-State
Binational or multinational statePart-nation state
Stateless nation
Geographic Characteristics of States
SizeMinistates
ShapeCompactElongatedProruptFragmentedPerforated
LocationCores & Capitals
Core areasPrimate citiesUnitary statesFederal statesForward-thrust capitals
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Boundaries
Natural (physical) boundariesArtificial (geometric) boundariesAntecedent boundarySubsequent boundaryConsequent boundarySuperimposed boundary
Boundaries as Sources of Conflict
Landlocked statesWaterbodiesMinority-group identificationResource disputes
Centripetal Forces
NationalismUnifying InstitutionsOrganization & AdministrationTransportation & Communication
Centrifugal Forces
Organized religionNationalism
SubnationalismRegionalismDevolution
Cooperation Among States
SupranationalismUnited Nations (UN)
Law of the SeaTerritorial SeasExclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)High Seas
Regional AlliancesEconomic Alliances
European Union (EU)NAFTAASEAN
Military & Political AlliancesNATOWarsaw PactCommonwealth of NationsOrganization of American States (OAS)
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The Geography of Representation
Electoral geographyRedistricting
Voting rights & raceGerrymandering
Stacked, excess vote, & wasted vote methods
Economic Geography
Chapter 10
Classification of Economic Activities
Primary activitiesHunting, gathering, grazing, agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining
Secondary activitiesManufacturing
Tertiary activitiesServices
Quaternary activitiesProcessing & dissemination of information
Quinary activitiesHigh-level decision-making jobs
Types of Economic Systems
Subsistence economies
Commercial economies
Planned economies
Agriculture
The growing of crops & the tending of livestock
Subsistence Agriculture
Extensive Subsistence AgricultureNomadic herding
TranshumanceShifting cultivation
Swidden or shifting cultivation
Intensive Subsistence AgricultureRice farmingUrban farmingGreen Revolution gains
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Commercial AgricultureProduction ControlsVon Thünen Model
Land near markets is used intensively for high-value crops & is divided into small unitsLand far from markets is used extensively
Intensive Commercial Agriculture (Large Investment – Near Market)Dairy & truck farmsLivestock-grain farming
Extensive Commercial Agriculture (Far from Market – Cheap Land)Large-scale wheat farmingLivestock ranching
Special Crops (Climate – Not distance to market)MediterraneanPlantations
Other Primary Activities
Fishing & ForestryMining & Quarrying
ManufacturingIndustrial Location Models
Least Cost TheoryAlfred WeberAgglomeration
Other ConsiderationsFordist vs. flexible manufacturing
Transport CharacteristicsAgglomeration Economies
External economiesComparative Advantage
Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
Many of the world’s largest economies are corporations75 million employees
10% of worldwide, nonagrarian employment
Geography & Public Policy
Contests and BriberyDo you think it is appropriate to spend public money to attract new employment to your state or community? Why or why not? If yes, what kinds of inducements and what total amount offered per job seems appropriate to you?
World Manufacturing Patterns & Trends
Small number of areas dominateEastern Anglo AmericaWestern & Central EuropeEastern EuropeEastern Asia
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High Tech Patterns
Major factor in employment growth & an increasing share of industrial outputRegionally concentrated
Silicon ValleyLocation tendencies
Proximity to universitiesAvoidance of areas with strong unionsLocally available venture capitalAreas with favorable quality of lifeGood communication & transportation infrastructure
Tertiary & Beyond
Over 80% of all workers in U.S.Distribution of services must match effective demandTourism an important sectorQuaternary & Quinary increasingly important
Services in World Trade
Nearly ¼ of all world tradeFinancial, brokerage, & leasing services
Developing countries can benefitForeign Direct Investment
Urban Geography
Chapter 11
The Functions of Urban AreasRetailingWholesalingManufacturingBusiness ServicesEntertainmentPolitical & Official AdministrationMilitary Defense NeedsSocial & Religious Service
Public ServicesEducationTransportation & CommunicationsMeeting PlacesRecreationVisitor ServicesResidential Areas
The Location of Urban Settlements
SiteBreak-in-bulk locations
River crossings, head-of-navigation locations, railheads
Situation
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The Economic Base
Basic sectorWorkers engaged in “export” activities
Nonbasic sectorSupport the urban area, but do not bring in outside money
Basic/nonbasic ratioMultiplier effect
Systems of Urban Settlements
The Urban HierarchyRank-Size RulePrimate citiesWorld citiesUrban influence zonesTowns in Agricultural Areas
Central Place TheoryNetwork cities
Central Place Theory
Walter Christaller (1933)A model for helping to explain town interdependenceThreshold & rangeA hierarchy exists of numerous small towns offering basic goods and services and fewer large towns offering a wider range of goods
Inside the City
Competitive bidding for land determines much of the land use within the cityIn general, population density & land values decrease as distance from the CBD increases
Peak-value intersectionsPopulation densities tend to show a hollow center
Models of Urban Land Structure
Concentric Zone Model
Sector Model
Multiple-Nuclei Model
Social Areas of Cities
City residents, especially in larger, more complex cities, will often segregate themselves based on:
Social statusFamily statusEthnicity
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Institutional Controls
Local & national governments pass laws to control urban life
Zoning and other non-market controlsAmbler V’s Euclid 1926Euclidian Zoning – Segregated useExclusionary ZoningZoning Out Kids
Suburbanization in the U.S.
Metropolitanization & suburbanization after WWIIHousing developments served as a pull factor to the suburbsIndustries followed the trendSuburbs began to rival the power of the central city
Edge Cities
Central City Change
Constricted central citiesSuburbanization reduced the economic base of the central city and isolated its residentsImmigration & gentrification have revived many urban areas
Expanding central citiesCities have expanded automobile linkages to keep the suburbs within the sphere of the central city
World Urban Diversity
U.S. & Canadian citiesWest European citiesEast European citiesCities in the Developing World
Latin AmericaAsiaAfrica