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Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Defining Performance and Choosing a Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach: OverviewMeasurement Approach: Overview
Defining PerformanceDeterminants of PerformancePerformance DimensionsApproaches to Measuring Performance
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Defining Performance Defining Performance
Performance is:• Behavior• What employees do
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Defining PerformanceDefining Performance
Performance is NOT:• Results or Outcomes• What employees produce
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Behaviors labeled as Performance are:Behaviors labeled as Performance are:
1. Evaluative– Negative– Neutral– Positive
2. Multidimensional– Many different kinds of behaviors– Advance or hinder organizational goals
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Behaviors are Not alwaysBehaviors are Not always
– Observable– Measurable
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Results/Consequences may be usedResults/Consequences may be used
– To infer behavior– As proxy for behavioral measure
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Determinants of PerformanceDeterminants of Performance
Performance =
Declarative Knowledge
X
Procedural Knowledge
X
Motivation
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
A. Declarative KnowledgeA. Declarative Knowledge
• Information about– Facts – Labels– Principles– Goals
• Understanding of task requirements
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
B. Procedural KnowledgeB. Procedural Knowledge
• Knowing– What to do– How to do it
• Skills– Cognitive– Physical– Perceptual– Motor– Interpersonal
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
C. MotivationC. Motivation
• Choices– Expenditure of effort– Level of effort– Persistence of effort
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Implications for Addressing Implications for Addressing Performance ProblemsPerformance Problems
• Managers need information to accurately identify source(s) of performance problems
• Performance management systems must– Measure performance
AND– Provide information on SOURCE(s) of problems
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Factors Influencing Determinants of Factors Influencing Determinants of Performance:Performance:
• Individual characteristics– Procedural knowledge– Declarative knowledge– Motivation
• HR practices• Work environment
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Performance Dimensions:Performance Dimensions:Types of multi-dimensional behaviors:Types of multi-dimensional behaviors:
• Task performance• Contextual performance
– Pro-social behaviors– Organizational citizenship
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Task performanceTask performance
Activities that • transform raw materials • help with the transformation process
– Replenishing– Distributing– Supporting
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Contextual performanceContextual performance
Behaviors that • contribute to organization’s effectiveness
and• provide a good environment in which task
performance can occur
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Differences Between Differences Between Task and Contextual PerformanceTask and Contextual Performance
• Task Performance• Varies across jobs• Likely to be role
prescribed• Influenced by
• Abilities• Skills
• Contextual Performance• Fairly similar across jobs• Not likely to be role
prescribed• Influenced by
• Personality
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Why Include Task & Contextual Why Include Task & Contextual Performance Dimensions in PM system?Performance Dimensions in PM system?
1. Global competition2. Teamwork3. Customer service 4. Supervisor views
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Job Performance in ContextJob Performance in Context
A performer(individual or
team)
In a given situation
Engages in certain
behaviors
That produce various results
TRAIT BEHAVIOR RESULTS
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Approaches to Measuring PerformanceApproaches to Measuring Performance
• Trait Approach– Emphasizes individual traits of employees
• Behavior Approach– Emphasizes how employees do the job
• Results Approach– Emphasizes what employees produce
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Trait ApproachTrait Approach
• Emphasis on individual• Evaluate stable traits
• Cognitive abilities• Personality
• Based on relationship between traits & performance
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Trait Approach (continued)Trait Approach (continued)
• Appropriate if• Structural changes planned for organization
• Disadvantages• Improvement not under individual’s control• Trait may not lead to
• Desired behaviors or • Desired results
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Behavior ApproachBehavior Approach
Appropriate if• Employees take a long time to achieve
desired outcomes• Link between behaviors and results is not
obvious• Outcomes occur in the distant future• Poor results are due to causes beyond the
performer’s controlNot appropriate if • above conditions are not present
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Results ApproachResults Approach
Advantages:• Less time • Lower cost • Data appear objective
Prentice Hall, Inc. © 2006 Herman Aguinis, University of Colorado at Denver
Results Approach (continued)Results Approach (continued)
Most appropriate when:• Workers skilled in necessary behaviors• Behaviors and results obviously related• Consistent improvement in results over time• Many ways to do the job right