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Importance of CancerDetection and Testing
Detecting cancers early is an importantstep in preventing significant healthproblems.
Give the accurate manage for thepresent illness(stage) of patient
To prevent further complication
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Outcomes in
Detecting Cancer True positive- test indicates that a patient has a disease
that the patient does indeed have
False positive
- if the test indicates that a patient has adisease when she does not
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Outcomes in
Detecting Cancer True negative - test indicates the patient is disease-
free, and this is indeed the case
False negative
- test indicates the patient is healthywhen in fact the patient has the disease
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Specificity of Medical
Tests Sensitivity refers to how accurately a testidentifies people who have the disease.
Specificity refers to how accurately a testidentifies people who do not have the disease
The best medical tests have high sensitivity andhigh specificity.
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SENSITIVITY It refers to the proportion of the times that a
test yields true positives.
The closer the sensitivity is to 100%, the morelikely a positive result actually means that thepatient has a disease.
The sensitivity of a medical test is a measure of
how well the test identifies people who have aparticular disease.
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SPECIFICITY It refers to the proportion of the time that
a test yields true negatives.
The closer the specificity is to 100%, themore likely a negative result means that thepatient is truly disease-free.
The specificity of a medical test is ameasure of how well the test identifiespeople who do not have a particular disease
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Importance:
samples may show cancer cells,
proteins or other substances madeby the cancer
idea of how well your organs arefunctioning and if they've beenaffected by cancer
enera
Detection
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Non - Invasive InvasiveTechniques
Analysis of Biopsy
Complete Blood
Count (CBC)UltrasoundMRIPET ScanCT Scan
Fine Needle
Aspiration
Core Needle Biopsy
Immunohistochemistry
(IHC)
Fluorescent In SituHybridization (FISH)
enera
Detection
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A. Complete blood count (CBC)It provides information about the number, parts,
shape, and structure of the different cell types
found in blood.3 Main Types of Blood cells: WBC RBC Platelets
Blood cancers may be detected using this test iftoo many or too few of a type of blood cell or
abnormal cells are found. eg., Leukemias
and Diagnostic
Techniques
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Leukocyte ( WBC)
Are major players in the immune system and help
defend against infection and disease. WBC can be divided into two main groups:
Phagocytes
Lymphocytes
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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Leukocyte ( WBC)
Phagocytes- Are cells that are able to consume and break
down foreign material, invading microbes andbroken down cells/cell parts.
They get their name from the Greek 'phagein',
to eat.
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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Leukocyte ( WBC) Lymphocytes-
These are recognition cells responsible for
initiating the specific immune response of theimmune system.
Three Major Types of Lymphocytes
B cells T cells
natural killer cells (NK cells)
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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T- Cells Formed by the pluripotent stem cells in
the bone marrow, T-cells mature in thethymus (a small organ located in the upperportion of the chest).
Two Subtypes of T cells; cytotoxic T cells (CD8 cells) helper T cells (CD4 cells).
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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T- Cells Cytotoxic T cells (CD8 cells) bind specifically to targetcells; virally infected cells,
cancer cells, or any foreign cells. After binding,cytotoxic T cells directly destroy the target cell.
Helper T cells (CD4 cells)release special chemicals that help activate other cells
of the immune response, including; B cells, cytotoxic Tcells, other helper T cells, NK cells, and macrophages.
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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B- CellsThese cells are produced from
the pluripotent stem cells in
the bone marrow and stay inthe marrow to mature.
B cells bind to their specificantigens, become activated
'plasma' cells and secretelarge amounts antibodies.
Natural killercells (NK cells)
It bind to virallyinfected cells andcancer cells anddirectly kill them.
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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Granulocytesgranules contain
chemicals and proteins
(from cells)
controlinflammatory andimmune functions.
Granulocytes are alsocapable of engulfingand destroying foreignmatter
NeutrophilsAre usually the first
cells to arrive at the
scene of infection orinflammation
They engulf anddestroy foreignmatter and then die,forming pus
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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Eosinophils
known to play a
role in parasiticinfections andallergic
reactions
Basophils
These cells are
stimulated byother immune cellsand play a role in
systemic allergicreactions.
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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Granulocytes
lack the granulesof granulocytes
capable ofengulfing and
destroying foreignmatter.
Monocytes/Macrophages
These cells are the largesttype of white blood cell.
The second cells on the sceneof a problem.
They engulf and processforeign matter so thatlymphocytes can recognize itand mount a specific defense.
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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CBC: Red Blood Cells (RBC)
Red blood cells (also
called erythrocytes) pick up oxygen inthe lungs and deliver it to the rest ofthe cells in the body.
2 Subtypes of RBC Hemoglobin
Hematocrit
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
Hemoglobin
Each red blood cell carries around 300
million molecules of a protein calledhemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is what actually grabs andcarries oxygen.
Each molecule of hemoglobin can carry 4molecules of oxygen
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Hematocrit
The hematocrit is the proportion of red blood cellsto an entire sample of blood (red blood cells / blood).
It may also be called packed cell volume (PCV) and itis normally represented as a percentage.
For example: a hematocrit of 30% means there are
30 milliliters of red blood cells in 100 milliliters ofblood.
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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Reticulocyte Count
Is the percentage of immature red blood
cells (reticulocytes) in the total red bloodcell count (reticulocytes / red blood cells).
1-2% of the total RBC count
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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Red Blood Cell Indices
The RBC indices evaluate the structure ofred blood cells and hemoglobin.
They include: mean corpuscular volume (MCV)
mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH)
mean corpuscle hemoglobin concentration(MCHC).
NON-INVASIVEA. Complete blood count (CBC)
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MCV describes the sizeor volume of RBC's
Classificatioon;
microcytic (small), normocytic (normal)
macrocytic (large)
MCH describes the
average weight of thehemoglobin in the RBC's.A small RBC will have asmaller MCH.
MCHC describes theaverage concentration ofhemoglobin in the RBC's
Classification: hypochromic (lowconcentration, pale color),
normochromic (normalconcentration, normal color)
hyperchromic (increasedconcentration, bright redcolor).
NON-INVASIVERed Blood Cell Indices
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Urine cytology- reveal cancer cellsthat could come from the bladder,ureters or kidneys
Blood protein testing- examine variousproteins in your blood (electrophoresis)can aid in detecting certain abnormal
immune system proteins
General Detection and
Laboratory Techniques
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Tumor marker tests- chemicals madeby tumor cells that can be detected in yourblood
prostate-specific antigen (PSA)- for prostatecancercancer antigen 125 (CA 125)- for ovarian
cancer
Calcitonin- for medullary thyroid canceralpha-fetoprotein (AFP)- for liver cancerhuman chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)- for germ
cell tumors, such as testicular cancer and
ovarian cancer
General Detection and
Laboratory Techniques
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ULTRASOUND (UTZ)
is an ultrasound-based diagnostic imagingtechnique used to visualize subcutaneous bodystructures
A computer program is used to analyze theechoes of sound waves sent into the bodyand generates an image on screen.
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Purpose of UTZ
Are good exams to gain important
information about a suspicious mass
It can be used to help guide a needle
during a biopsy.
ULTRASOUND (UTZ)
ULTRASOUND (UTZ)
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Can detect lesions in women with dense breasts
when mammograms cannot.
Less expensive than a mammogram.
Present the difference between a cyst and a solidmass without using a needle to draw out fluid (non-
invasive).
Never exposed to radiation detect blood flow through vessels
no known harmful effects to humans.
ULTRASOUND (UTZ)ADVANTAGES
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ULTRASOUND (UTZ)DISADVANTAGES
Sometimes it is unable to determine whetheror not a mass is malignant, and a biopsy will berecommended.
Many cancers cannot be detected via anultrasound.
Calcifications that are visible on mammograms
are not visible on ultrasound scans
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MAGNETIC RESONANCEIMAGING(MRI)
Also called as nuclear magnetic resonanceimaging (NMRI)
Can locate and describe the gross extentof a mass or tumor but cannotdifferentiate between benign and
malignant
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When contrast agent is not used an MRIcan show: When contrast agent is used MRI canshow:
contrast agent is not used an MRI can
show:The shape, size, appearance, and locationof organs, bones, and jointsThe presence of abnormal growthsSigns of inflammation or infection
size and location of benign or malignant
growthsenlarged lymph nodeschanges in blood flowextracellular volume
MAGNETIC RESONANCEIMAGING(MRI)
P it E i i
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Positron Emission
Tomography (PET) Is an imaging technique that uses radioactivemolecules to create a dynamic image of internaltissues and organs.
It produce images that reveal the activity ofliving tissue.
PET scans use radioactively labeled tracers
(radiotracers) that are injected into thebloodstream
PET SCAN
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Drink plenty of water, but do not eat or drink anything(except water) for 6 hours before your exam
Take your medications normally and drink them with
ample water Make sure you arrive at the imaging center on time, the
compound used for the scan breaks down rapidly and ifyou are late, the images may not be as good
Wear loose fitting clothing
Do not wear any jewelry; watches, chains, rings,piercings, etc
PET SCANPreparation
:
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Tomography
CTs Scan uses special
x-rayequipment toobtain cross-
sectionalpictures of thebody
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Use In Cancer to:To detect or confirm the presence of a tumor;To provide information about the size and
location of the tumor and whether it has spread;To guide a biopsy (the removal of cells or tissues
for examination under a microscope);
To help plan radiation therapy or surgery; andTo determine whether the cancer is responding
to treatment.
Tomography
CTs Scan
i
http://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=biopsy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=cell&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=radiation%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=surgery&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=surgery&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=radiation%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=cell&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=biopsy&version=Patient&language=English -
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Biopsy
- is the removal oftissue from a
living subject todetermine thepresence orextent of a
disease- Visualization of
change cell
microscopically
CYTOLOGY SPECIMENSpecimen can be obtain
from tumors that tend to
shed cells from their
surface
BIOPSY
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BIOPSY
NEEDLE BIOPSY Incision Biopsy
Only part of tumoris removedCell tissue only
NEEDLE BIOPSY Excision BiopsyEntire tumor is
surgically removed forexaminationUsed for small tumors
(2-3cm)
Serve as treatment iftissue margin containno tumor cells
Bi
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BiopsyInvasive Techniques
Fine needleaspiration (FNA)uses a small
needle to collectsmall samples of alesion.
Core needlebiopsy (CNAB)uses a larger
needle to collectsamples of a lesion
Biopsy
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Fine needle aspiration(FNA)
ADVANTAGES:
diagnose benign lesions
Inexpensive, quick, readilyavailable, and very safe
DISADVANTAGES:
No ability to differentiate
between in situ andinvasive breast cance
Core needle biopsy (CNAB) ADVANTAGES:
Strong ability to specificallydiagnose benign lesions.
Some ability to differentiatebetween in situand invasivebreast cancer.
DISADVANTAGES:
More invasive, timeconsuming, expensive
BiopsyInvasive Techniques
Anal sis of Biops
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Analysis of BiopsySamples
mmunohistochemistry (IHC)measures protein expression
using specially labeledantibodies.
example: Three proteins ofparticular interest in breastcancer are HER2, theestrogen receptor (ER) andthe progesterone receptor(PR).
Fluorescence in SituHybridization (FISH)
measures genetic changes (i.e.amplification) using
fluorescently labeled DNAprobes.
Is a technique that measuresgene amplification andchromosomal abnormalities usingfluorescently labeled DNAprobes.
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Cancer SpecificTechniques
Mammography
uses low dose
x-ray to createan image of abreast.
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Techniques
Direct Visualization Direct VisualizationSigmoidoscopy uses a small tube containing viewing
equipment to view the colon.
Virtual Colonoscopy uses an MRI or CT scan tocreate an image of the inside of the colon.Bronchoscopy Endoscopy
Cystoscopy
Exploratory Surgery
C S ifi
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Cancer SpecificTechniques
Pap smears use a sample of cells from thecervix to detect cervical cancer. Papsmears may also detect ovarian and
uterine cancers that have migrated to thecervix.
Prostate specific antigen (PSA) test
measures levels of a glycoprotein in theblood. Elevated levels of PSA areassociated with prostate cancer
S ti l L h N d
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Sentinel Lymph NodeBiopsy (SLN)
Use to detect metastasis
the hypothetical first lymph node or
group of nodes reached bymetastasizing cancer cells from a tumor
used in the staging of certain types of
cancer to see if they have spread to anylymph node
Grading and Staging
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Grading and StagingGRADING
Evaluation of degree ofdifferentiation of cancercells
Grade 1- the least
malignantTo
Grade 4- the mostmalignant
Grade 1- the most
differentiatedTo
Grade 4- the leastdifferentiated
STAGING
The process of describing thelocal extent of the disease orthe spread of cancer fromthe original site
Essential in determining thechoice of therapy andassessing prognosis
Based on information aboutthe tumor size and location inthe body, and whether or notit has spread to other areasof the body
TNM Staging
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TNM StagingSystem
Measure tumors in threeways:
Primary Tumor (T)
Node (N)
Metastasize (M) TNM Stag ng
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TNM Stag ngSystem
Tumor
T0- no evidence of primary tumor TIS- carcinoma in situ
T1-T4- ascending degrees of tumor size andinvolvement
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Nodes
N0- no evidence of disease in lymph nodes
N1a, N2b- disease found in regional lymphnodes, metastasis not suspected
N1a, N2b, N3 - disease found in regionallymph nodes, metastasis suspected
ag ngSystem
TNM Staging
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Metastasis
M0- no evidence of distant metastasis M1, M2, M3- Ascending degrees of
metastasis involvement,including distant nodes
TNM StagingSystem
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Once the T, N, and M are determined, a Stageof I, II, III, or IV is assigned
Stage I - (T1,N0,M0) - Early StageStage II - (T2,N1,M0) - Local SpreadStage III - ( T3,N2,M0) Extensive
spread but no metastasis
Stage IV (T4,N3,M+) Advancedstage, with distantmetastasis
ag ngSystem
Levels of Cancer
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Levels of CancerPrevention and Control
1.Primary Prevention Focuses on eliminating the
conditions that cause cancer todevelop Pre-cancerous stage
Levels of Cancer
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2. Secondary Prevention Refers to early detection
coupled with effective therapy Cancer maybe curable in early
stage.
Levels of CancerPrevention and Control
Levels of Cancer
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3. Tertiary Prevention Refers to the prevention of
cancer recurrence, symptomsand complication Involves Supportive Care,
Rehabilitation and pain relief
Levels of CancerPrevention and Control
Pr nc p es o
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Pr nc p es oCancer Treatment
Objectives:
Aims to prevent cancer fromspreading locally or recurring/relapsing at sites distant from the
original location.
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Treatments Surgery Radiation Therapy
Hormonal Therapy
Targeted Therapy Antibodies
Cancer Vaccines
Complimentary and Alternative Medicines
Chemotherapy
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TREATMENT MODALITIES
A. Loco-Regional Treatment
1. Surgery
2. Radiation Therapy3. Transplant
B. Systemic Treatment
1. Cytotoxic Chemotherapy2. Hormonal Therapy
SURGERY
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SURGERY The first line of treatment for many solid
tumors. M single cancer cell is invisible to the naked eye
but can regrow into a new tumor, a processcalled recurrence
A local treatment used to remove visible tumorsor the entire organ
Purposes:DiagnoseCureControlPallative
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SURGERY Local Excision- simple surgery with
small margin of normal tissuesurrounding tumor.
En bloc Dissection- removal of tumor,tissues, and any contiguous structures.
Surgery on Cancer in
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Surgery on Cancer inSitu
Electrosurgery- application of electricalcurrent to cancerous cells
Cryosurgery- deep freezing with liquidnitrogen
Chemosurgery- applied chemotherapeutic
agents layer by layer with surgical incision. Co2 laser- use of laser for laser excision.
RADIATION THERAPY
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RADIATION THERAPY
The use of high-energy ionizing rays totreat a variety of cancers
Destroys the cells ability to reproduce by
damaging the cells DNA Rapidly dividing cells are more vulnerable
to radiation than slower dividing cells
It can be used alone or in conjunction withother treatments (e.g. chemotherapy andsurgery) to cure or stabilize cancer.
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Objectives: This treatment seeks to relieve symptoms of the
cancer and to prolong survival, making life more
comfortable. Types of Radiation Therapy
External Radiation Therapy
Internal Radiation Therapy
Photon Radiation
RADIATION THERAPY
Types of Radiation
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Types of RadiationTherapy
1. External RadiationTherapy Administered by
high energy X-ray machines(e.g. Betatronand Linear
Accelerator) ormachinescontainingradiosotope
External Radiation:
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External Radiation:Nursing Care
Marks must not remove
Keep the skin dry
Talcum and Lotions are contraindicated
Avoid strong sunlight, extremes temperature,constricting clothes.
No Eating (NPO)
Patient is not the SOURCE of Radiation afterthe procedure.
Types of Radiation
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Internal Radiation Therapy
Involves the placement of specially
prepared radioisotopes directlyinto near the tumor itself or intothe systemic circulation
Also called brachytherapy
Types of RadiationTherapy
Types of Internal
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Types of InternalRadiation Therapy
Sealed Source RT(Brachytherapy)Un Sealed- Source RT
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Sealed- Source RT
Sealed radiation source isplaced in a cavity or adjacent to
cancer.
Ex: Radium, Iridium, Cesium
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INTRACAVITARY Therapy Radioisotope is placed into an applicator, then
placed into the body cavity for a carefullycalculated time (usually 24 72 H)
Ex: Radioisotopes: Celsium 137
Radium 226
Sealed- Source RT
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INTERSTITIAL THERAPY
Radioisotope of choice is placed intoneedles, beads, seeds, ribbons or catheters
and then implanted directly into the tumor. Implants may be left in the tumor
temporarily or permanently.
Ex: Iridium 192, Iodine 125, Celsium 137,Gold 198, Radon 222
Sealed- Source RT
UNSEALED SOURCE RT
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UNSEALED SOURCE RT
Used in Systemic therapy. Source of Radiation is given orally,
intravenously. PO Administration: Low dose: Graves
Disease 131I High Dose: Thyroid Ca
IV Administration: 32p TreatsPolycythemia Vera
Other Types of
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It uses high energy rayscomposed of particles of energy
called photons.
Gamma rays: are produced by
the breakdown of radioactive
isotopes of elements such as
Cobalt-60 and radium
X-rays: originate from machinesthat excite electrons using
cathode ray tubes or linear
accelerators.
Other Types ofRadiation Therapy
Nursing Care Highlight
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g g g
Care of the Client with Sealed Implants of
Radioactive Sources
Assign the client to a privateroom, with private bath.
Place Caution: RadioactiveMaterial sign on the door of
the clients room. Pregnant nurses should not
care for these clients; do notallow children younger than 16
and pregnant women to visit.
Limit each visitor to hour per day
Never touch the
radioactive materialwith bare hands
Save all dressingsand bed linens until
after theradioactive sourceis removed.
RADIATION SAFETY
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RADIATION SAFETY
Three factors which determine thetotal exposure one receives in a givenradiation field are:
1. Time of exposure.
2. Distance from Source.
3. Amount of shielding present.
TIME
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TIME
The less time
you spend near asource, the lessradiation you will
receive
The Shortest Possible Time
DISTANCE
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DISTANCE As far as possible
( can spend moretime at a distanceof 20 feet)
The farther you getfrom a source, theless radiation youwill receive.
SHIELDS
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SHIELDS
The more
shielding youhave, the lessradiation you will
receive.
Protective Lead Apron
Advantages of
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Advantages ofRadiotherapy
Destroys quickly dividing cells at the marginsof tumors. Surgery may miss these cellsleading to recurrence of disease.
Can successfully eradicate growth withoutpermanently damaging the adjacent normal
In conjunction with other treatments, maycure tumors that are not responsive to anysingle agent.
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II. SYSTEMIC TREATMENT
HORMONAL THERAPY
Fights cancer byaltering the
amounts ofhormones in thebody.
BIOLOGIC TREATMENTS
Referred to by many termsincluding: Immunologictherapy, Immunotherapy,
biotherapy. (Interferon,Interleukin)
Often used to help restorethe functioning of the
immune system. Stimulates the disease-
fighting ability of the body.
CHEMOTHERAPY
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CHEMOTHERAPY Chemo, refers to a wide
range of drugs used totreat cancer
work by damaging the
dividing cancer cells andpreventing their furtherreproduction
Death of the normal cells
produces some of thecommon side-effects ofchemotherapy.
PRINCIPLE OFCHEMOTHERAPY
Timing of dose around thecell cycle and in relation to
other drugs is criticalCombination therapy is
more effective
Effectiveness of the drug
relies on the number ofcells in division
CHEMOTHERAPY
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The use of powerful drugs to:
Kill Cancer CellsControl their Growth
Relieve Pain Symptoms
CHEMOTHERAPY
Types of
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Types ofChemotherapy
1. Primary ChemotherapyThe use chemotherapy alone for the cure ofa specific tumor.
2. Adjuvant ChemotherapyThe use of chemotherapy after primary,loco regional treatment, with the intent of
decreasing the relapse rate and improvingsurvival.
Types of
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Types ofChemotherapy
3. Neo- adjuvant ChemotherapyThe use of chemotherapy before loco- regionaltreatment with the intent of decreasing tumor
size enhancing chances for resectability andpreservation of normal structures.
4. Concurrent Chemotherapy
The use of chemotherapy combined withradiotherapy in order to increase local responseand control systemic spread.
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ypes oChemotherapy
5. Palliative Chemotherapy
The use of chemotherapy in advancedmalignancies, the intent of which is notcure but control of the disease andtumor related symptoms.
CHEMOTHERAPY
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TypesAntineoplastic Agents- drugs that inhibit and combat the
development of neoplasms
Classes:
AntimetabolitesGenotoxic Drugs
Alkylating agents:
Intercalating agents
Enzyme inhibitors
CHEMOTHERAPYDRUGS
CHEMOTHERAPY
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Types
Spindle Inhibitors
Additional Chemotherapy Agents
CHEMOTHERAPY
ANTIMETABOLITES
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ANTIMETABOLITES
Drugs that interfere with the formation ofkey biomolecules within the cell.
work by blocking the activity of enzymes
These drugs often prevent the normalreplication of DNA , nucleic acids andtherefore cell division.
Other antimetabolites may interfere withthe creation of RNA or other cellularprocesses
ANTIMETABOLITES
http://www.cancerquest.org/dictionary.cfm?lookup_id=DNA&lang=englishhttp://www.cancerquest.org/dictionary.cfm?lookup_id=RNA&lang=englishhttp://www.cancerquest.org/dictionary.cfm?lookup_id=RNA&lang=englishhttp://www.cancerquest.org/dictionary.cfm?lookup_id=DNA&lang=english -
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Classes:Folate Antagonists- known as antifolates
inhibit dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), an enzyme
involved in the formation of nucleotides. When thisenzyme is blocked, nucleotides are not formed,disrupting DNA replication and cell division
Ex. Methotrexate (Wellcovorin):
ADVERSE EFFECT Bone marrow depression
stomatitis
ANTIMETABOLITES
ANTIMETABOLITES
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Purine Antagonists purines (adenine and guanine) are chemicals used to
build the nucleotides of DNA and RNA
inhibiting DNA synthesis in two different ways They can inhibit the production of the purine
containing nucleotides, adenine and guanine
They may be incorporated into the DNA moleculeduring DNA synthesis
Ex. 6-Mercaptopurine, Dacarbazine, Fludarabine
ANTIMETABOLITES
ANTIMETABOLITES
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Pyrimidine Antagonists act to block the synthesis of pyrimidine containing
nucleotides (C and T in DNA; C and U in RNA). The drugs used to block the construction of these
nucleotide have structures that are similar to the naturalcompound.
By acting as 'decoys', these drugs can prevent theproduction of the finished nucleotides. They may exerttheir effects at different steps in that pathway and maydirectly inhibit crucial enzymes.
Ex. 5-fluorouracil; Arabinosylcytosine
ANTIMETABOLITES
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Drugs that damage DNA. By causingDNA damage, these agents interferewith DNA replication, and cell division
3 Treatments: Alkylating Agents
Intercalating Agents
Enzyme Inhibitors
eno ox c
Drugs
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Alkylating agents:
The first class of chemotherapy agentsused. These drugs modify the bases ofDNA, interfering with DNA replication
and transcription and leading to mutations
eno ox c
Drugs
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Intercalating agents These drugs wedge themselves into the spaces
between the nucleotides in the DNA double helix.They interfere with transcription, replication and
induce mutations.
Enzyme inhibitors
These drugs inhibit key enzymes, such as
topoisomerases, involved in DNA replicationinducing DNA damage.
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Drugs
Spindle Inhibitors
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Spindle Inhibitors
These agents prevent proper cell division byinterfering with the cytoskeletalcomponents that enable one cell to divide
into two. Vinca Alkaloids
Paclitaxel (Taxol)
Docetaxel (Taxotere)Ixabepilone (Ixempra)
Chemotherapy
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Chemotherapy
Agents While many of the commonly used chemotherapyagents fit into one of the three previously describedgroupings (Genotoxic, Cytoskeletal, and Anti-metabolite), some of them work through mechanisms
that do not neatly fit into one of these categories. Arsenic trioxide (Trisenox)
Bleomycin
Hydroxyurea Streptozocin
Chemotherapeutic
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pAdministration
Oral
IM/ SQ
IV
Central Venous Catheter
Venous Access Devices (VAD)
Intraarterial Route
Intraperitoneal Route
STEM CELLS
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STEM CELLS Stem cells are able to grow
into other blood cells that
mature and function as
needed in the body.
Stem cells create the threemain types of blood cells:
red blood cells
white blood cells
platelets
Stem cells
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Stem cells
Location Bone marrow (the spongy center of thebone where blood cells are made) Peripheral blood (found in blood vessels
throughout the body) Cord blood (found in the umbilical cord and
collected after a babys birth)
Stem cells for transplantation are obtained from any of these threeplaces.
Transplant in Cancer
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Transplant in Cancer
A. Stem Cell Transplant a procedure that is used
in conjunction with high-
dose chemotherapy more effective thanconventionalchemotherapy indestroying myeloma cells
restore blood cellproduction
Types of Stem Cell
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ypTransplants
Bone marrow transplantstem cell-containing bone marrow is collected, stored, and
infused following high-dose chemotherapy and/orradiation therapy.
Peripheral blood stem cell (PBSC) transplantProcedure in which blood containing mobilized stem cells is
collected by apheresis, stored, and infused following high-dose chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy.
Cord blood transplants refer to transplants where thestem cells are obtained from umbilical cord bld
Types of Transplants
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Autologous transplants, patients receive theirown stem cells.
Syngeneic transplants, patients receive stem
cells from their identical twin. Allogeneic transplants, patients receive stemcells from their brother, sister, orparent. A person who is not related to the
patient (an unrelated donor) also may be used.
yp paccording to Donor
THE CANCER PAIN
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PROBLEM
PAINIn cancer is the most fearedand distressing symptom
of the disease.
THE CANCER PAINPROBLEM
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WHO reveals that everyday at least 4million people suffer from cancer pain.
30 50% of cancer patients undergoingtreatment, and up to 95% of patients withadvanced disease, suffer from pain.
More than 50% of patients still sufferedfrom unrelieved cancer pain.
PROBLEM
WHO: 3 Step Analgesic Ladder For
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Cancer Pain Management
Basic Principles:
BY THE MOUTH
If the patient can swallow, oraladministration is the route of choice.
WHO: 3 Step Analgesic Ladder ForC P i M
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BY THE CLOCK
Analgesics should be given regularly and
prophylactically.
BY THE LADDER
Use a few drugs well than many badly.
Cancer Pain Management
WHO Three-Step
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Analgesic Ladder Step I For mild to moderate pain non-opioids
(treatment of choice). may or may not be combinedwith adjuvant drugs (drugs that are used to hasten oradd to the primary mode of treatment).
Step II For moderate pain, who did not feel reliefafter using only non-opioids, a combination of opioidsand non-opioids should be tried. Again, adjuvants mayor may not be used.
Step III For moderate to severe pain, opioids shouldbe used, with or without non-opioids, and with orwithout adjuvants.
ancer :
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ManagementC Comfort
A- Altered Body Image
N Nutrition
C Chemotherapy
E- Evaluate the Response inTreatment
R - Rest