Download - notatii grafice
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 1/22
The term notation refers to any codied or organized system of scripted
characters or
visually perceived communication that represents or implies meaning and is
capable of
eectively transmitting information from one party to another.
Systems of notation designed specically to represent musical performance are
found
around the world and date back at least 2,!! years with each system varying
considerably based upon musical and cultural values and societal progress. The
single
commonality in all musical notational systems is that there is no known society
to have
created one without rst developing a method of linguistic notation
" it is no surprise then
that the pictographic elements, orientation, form, and comprehension in musical
systems
of notation typically resemble the literary systems of their respective societies
and
geographic locations. Though some musical societies, namely #frican and $ative
#merican cultures, have eectively e%isted without written systems of notation,
contrary
cultural values made a method of writing down music essential and inevitable.
#s suggested by the linguistic parallel, musical notation functions rst and
foremost
as a method of communication" it allows the composer or creator to indirectly
transfer
directions to the performers in lieu of oral transmission. &n the form of a score,
musical
notation also allows the musicians to better communicate with each other and
the
conductor 'if necessary( during a performance. e. $otation also functions to
e%pand the
repertoire of performers by either assisting in the process of memorization or in
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 2/22
eliminating the need to memorize altogether. )inally, notation allows for the
preservation
of music for future performances or study and dissolves the necessity of the
intergenerational rote teaching that would otherwise be necessary to allow the
same music to
be accurately performed for any great period of time.
The degree to which any musical notation is specic varies depending on cultural
usage and musical aesthetics. *any of the rst systems of notation, such as the
use of
ekphonetic or neumatic symbols, aorded only appro%imate directions yet still
allowed
for relatively consistent musical performances.2
+ater systems provided general
instruction to the learned and knowledgeable performer, like the aro-ue system
of
gured bass, or allowed the performer to interpret the nonuse of musical
direction to
intuitively make musical decisions as appropriate within the style 'e.g. dynamics,
phrasing, rubato, etc.(. &f there is an observable trend in the degree of notational
specicity from the beginning of musical notation to the present day, it is the
evolution
and accumulation of notational symbols that has allowed the composer to notate
increasingly precise musical directions and to maintain nite control of the
musical
product.
Though concepts in musical notation rst appeared in #sian societies and in
cantillized te%ts of /reek, 0oman, and 1ebrew origins, it is the development and
evolution of the musical notation of estern 3urope that most greatly in4uenced
graphic
music.
The documented musical activities of medieval estern 3urope reside primarily
in
sacred use. The eorts to standardize the 0oman 5atholic *ass and liturgical
practices
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 3/22
by 5harlemagne are considered to be at least partly responsible for the attempts
to notate
chant and sacred music, which had originally been learned by rote. The earliest
known
e%ample dates from about 67! by #urelian of 089me, though it has been
suggested that
collections of notated chants may have been kept in 5harlemagne:s library
several years
earlier.
Two distinct methods of chant notation were rst employed. ;ratorical neumes
were
written above chant te%ts and provided the singer with a basic rising or fallingshape of
pitch on which the te%t was to be sung. # system of twentyone dierent
neumatic
symbols eventually aorded a more comple% vocabulary of pitch contour. # later,
diastematic method placed neumes in relation to an imaginary line of denable
pitch" the
distance of the neumes from the %ed point of reference represented anappro%imate
value of pitch and oered a system that more aptly dened musical content.
)rom this point, innovation in musical notation entered a period of perpetual
evolution as re-uired by musical demands and an increased interest in
specicity,
ob<ectivity, and consistency in performance. y the end of the tenth century, the
imaginary line of the diastematic system became a real one in the score, andmore lines
were eventually added by /uido =:#rezzo and others to create our present
musical sta
of %ed pitch. $eumes became noteheads designating specic pitches on the
sta and
later became responsible for conveying specic rhythm. y the aro-ue era,
articulation, dynamic, and phrase markings became notated as composerswished to
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 4/22
e%press greater musical direction and leave less interpretive consideration to the
performer:s training or intuition.
Though notational innovations slowed and crystallized into an eectively
standardized notational system by the nineteenth century, postromanticcomposers again
began to make ad<ustments in notational practice as necessary to convey the
meaning of
the works, and their individual advancements collectively contributed to the air
of
e%perimentation that permitted further and more drastic departures from
traditional
notation. /ustav *ahler:s music is littered with substantial amounts of written
directions
to the performers and conductor, and though not notation per se, *ahler:s words
were
necessary to convey musical meaning that no notation in use was able to aord.
;ther
earlytwentieth century composers amended e%isting notations to t their needs>
1enry
5owell:s piano music used thick vertical bars that encompassed the range of the
sta to
represent tone clusters" =arius *ilhaud:s +es 5ho8phores '?@?A( eliminated the
redundant lines of the sta and used <ust one line to notate unpitched percussion
instruments7
" #rnold SchBenberg used Cshaped noteheads to denote his use of
Sprechstimme" and the use of -uartertones or microtones by many composershas been
eectively indicated with variations on the traditionallyused sharp and 4at
symbols.
The most profound adaptation of traditional notational symbols was invented by
1enry 5owell in his $ew *usical 0esources '?@!(, a treatise initially conceived
in his
study with 5harles Seeger about a decade earlier Dto rationalize his manner ofplaying the
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 5/22
piano.E F
+ooking to eliminate the Dclumsy e%pedientE of notating asymmetric divisions
of the beat with a numerical notation dictating ratio 'e.g. DE over a triplet(,
5owelldivised a system of distinct notehead shapes to represent various metric
proportions. y
replacing the previous system of notation with noteheads that concisely specify
triplets,
-uintuplets, septuplets, etc., some of the clutter and e%tra notations of a score
could be
eliminated. The following e%amples show the series that 5owell devised and an
e%ample
of the notation in application>
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 6/22
1erbert rGn pioneered the use of computers in graphically notated music scores
in
the midsi%ties, and Stalks and Trees and =rops and 5louds '?@AH( for
percussion, the
nal piece in a trio of solo percussion works of the same year, represents one of
the rst
pieces created by a computer plotter. &n the work, thirteen dierent instruments
or groups of like instruments are chosen by the performer and are each
represented by a
dierent shape of notehead. Sounds are notated spatially in relation to two time
a%es,
with the lower containing dry sounds and the upper, resonant and ringing
sounds. The
DstalksE and DdropsE of the title are notated by noteheads connected to vertical
lines
emerging from the lower and upper time a%es, respectively, and signify single
attacks.
The DtreesE and DcloudsE are single structures of continuous attacks comprised
of
noteheads that converge at a single point on either a%is. The vertical distancefrom each
a%is determines the dynamic intensity of each sound, and the size of each
notehead
determines the timbral intensity or fullness of each sound I a degree of timbral
specicity
that appears to be uni-ue to rGn:s music and notation. The composer:s method
of
notation is one that provides the performer with precise and detailed direction as
to the
performance of each sound in an e%tremely eJcient manner. Though the
dynamic and
timbral intensities are relative and sub<ect to the performer:s choice of
instruments,
implements, and personal preferences, the score can be regarded as being
highly specic
yet simultaneously sub<ective.
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 7/22
+inear form is perhaps the most common method of form. &t is much like the
method of reading traditional notation and probably used so fre-uently because
of its
nearly universal use in reading and comprehending most forms of written
language. &t
was particularly used in the early stages of the graphic notation trend and
especially in
the works of rown, 5age, and )eldman. Knlike in traditional notation, linear form
in
graphic notation does not typically adhere to a pulse. 5hronological progression
in
accordance with a time line is common, as in rGn:s Stalks and Trees and =rops
and
5louds,
2( Spatial or linear methods of notating rhythm are perhaps the most common in
graphically notated works. $otes or symbols are read and performed in relation
to their
position on the page. This system is often used with a time line, as in rGn:s
Stalks and
Trees and =rops and 5louds.
# spatial rhythmic notation
aords the composer varying levels of control over rhythm" using time lines
allows the
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 8/22
composer to place notes outside of a strict rhythmic framework while still
maintaining F!
uncompromising control, while other models permit the composer to establish
consistent
and determinate rhythmic relationships yet allow the performer interpretive
choice in the
e%act duration or placement of each sound.
F( )ree rhythm, that is, an absence of rhythmic direction, is found in most of the
abstract graphic forms but can also be present in combination within other
systems of
rhythmic notation. &n rGn:s Stalks and Trees and =rops and 5louds, the DtreeE
and F?
DcloudE structures are meant to be heard as continuous events of sound" being
that they
are performed by percussion instruments that are unable to truly sustain sound,
it is
necessary for the performer to continually strike the instruments to create this
illusion.
Though the beginning and ending of these structures are strictly specied, aswell as the
specic timing of entrances of the instruments that may make up the events,
both the
number and rhythmic placement of the pulses contained in each tree is
indeterminate,
which aords the performer a considerable amount of freedom in shaping the
te%tural
content of the structures.
0oman 1aubenstock0amati:s Lreise for Sprechstimme and Mercussion consists
of
two similarlysized circles, one containing various abstract shapes and the other
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 9/22
fragments of newsprint, numbers, and even snippets of crossword puzzles. $o
directions
are given other than the instrumentation. &t is not even dictated which of the
circles each
performer is to play, or if they should realize both" however, a circle of shapes
identical
to the one on the left below is also used in 1aubenstock0amati:s =uo '?@H2( for
guitar
and percussion and a similar graphic is used in his atterie '?@A@( for solo
percussion, so
it seems implicit that the percussionist is meant to perform the circle on the left
of the
page and the vocalist the te%ted circle on the right.
2( Merformerselected form allows the performer to choose from specied
substance
that will be included or e%cluded from performance. Larlheinz Stockhausen:s $r.@
Nyklus '?@F@( for solo percussion includes graphic structures that provide this
kind of
option. &n the following e%ample, the performer plays the sta system in the
middle of 77
the page and chooses only one of the bo%es on each side of it to perform,
omitting the
other entirely from the performance. The resulting music is thus one in which the
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 10/22
performer has a degree of compositional input, yet the composer still maintains
a large
amount of creative control.
7( proportional dynamics allow any instrument
to e%plore more eectively its dynamic range and capabilities than traditional
notation
allows. y the mid?@A!:s, this method was so common, it became implied 'or at
least
suggested( that noteheads of varying shapes represented dynamic intensity, and
the
techni-ue continues to be employed in music today. &t may be found in
Stockhausen:s
Nyklus and in numerous other works
( =iastematic dynamics are those that are proportionate to a reference point
and may
be likened to the diastematic method of notating pitch. Though not as common
as the
previous method of notating dynamics, this style is e-ually eective. rGn:s
Stalks and
Trees and =rops and 5louds demonstrates this style with the distance of eachnotehead
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 11/22
from the time a%es representing relative intensity. 5age:s 2H: ?!.FF7E for a
Mercussionist '?@FA( features a similar but dierent method in which each sta
line
'designating dierent families of instruments> *etal, ood, Skin, #u%illiary(represents a supposed mezzoforte dynamic" dots 'single sounds( or lines
'crescendi and
decrescendi( above or below each line specify dynamics that are proportionately
louder
or softer. &n some scores, a marked reference point is not always present, as an
ob<ect:s
physical location on the page can also suJce.
&t is easily observed that the period from ?@F!?@H! represents the era in which
graphic notation was most signicantly and widely used. oth the large number
of
works from this time which contain nontraditional notation as a central concept
and the
development of graphic notation by composers of all nationalities and aesthetic
orientations characterizes this trend as a greatly signicant aspect of musical
history. &t is
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 12/22
worth pondering then the causes of such a trend. Though it would be impossible
to
assign a single motivation, there are a number of philosophies that are likely to
have
contributed.
# nal possible in4uence is the e%periments in percussion music in the ?@! and
7!:s
and the continued e%ploration of percussion in the music ensuing after orld ar
&&.
5omposers, especially Oohn 5age, who was responsible for much of the
percussion music
of the time, must have realized the sonic ambiguity in composing for any type of
percussion instruments. )or e%ample, any two 4utes will be of the same size and
shape
and will produce very comparable sounds" thus music specied for D4ute,E in
most cases,
will sound very similar from one performance to the ne%t. #ny two performances
of music specied for Dgong,E however, will most likely sound vastly dierent. #
gong
may range in size from <ust a few inches to several feet in diameter" it may have
a tonal
pitch, a wide range of harmonics, or even an upward or downward glissando
eect" it
may come in one of dozens of dierent varities from around the world" each with
a
uni-ue sound and timbre. The variety of sounds that a gong may produces is
further
compounded by the huge variety of available mallets, sticks, and implements,
each
capable of making a markedly dierent sound when used even on the same
instrument.
&n short, a composer scoring for Dgong,E or, for that matter, Dbass drum,E
Dcymbals,E
Dtriangle,E etc., cannot aptly dene the e%act sound of the instrument no matter
how
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 13/22
specic sPhe attempts to be. &t is perhaps possible then that the naturally and
unavoidably
indeterminate -uality of scoring for percussion translated to a more sub<ective
and even
aleotoric approach to musical performance in general and one that allowed the
performer
a broader sonic spectrum I even for nonpecussive instruments.
=espite the possible problems in composing with graphic notation, there are a
multitude of benets that arise in its use. *ost signicantly, the sub<ectivity of
graphic
notation often separates innite sound possibilities from nite notational
possibilities.
Mut another way, it e%pands the sonic, musical, and e%tramusical capabilities of
both the
performer and the instrument in a way in which traditional notation 'even with
detailed
instruction from the composer( cannot possibly eectively duplicate, and it
allows the
composer and performer to e%plore a musical spectrum that had been greatly
limited by
the ideals associated with traditionallynotated music. Similarly, graphic notation
allows
for much greater artistic e%pression and liberates the performer from the
constraints of
established performance practice, and, for the rst time, it permits the performer
to ask
-uestions and then provide the answers. /raphic notation thus allows the
performer to
embrace creativity, e%pression, and artistry to a much greater e%tent than music
previously aforded. +astly, these factors provide a more sub<ective and open
listening
e%perience for the astute audience member, an e%perience that may be
perceived A2
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 14/22
according to personal e%periences and aesthetics instead of one implicitly
suggested by
the composer.
+:1istoire du Soldat is a fteenmovement chamber
work for clarinet, bassoon, cornet, trombone, violin, contra bass, percussion,
narrator,
two speakers, and a dancer. &t was composed as a theatre piece that would be
ine%pensive to perform and could be taken on tour. This economic motive,
important especially due to orld ar &, may have been what inspired Stravinsky
to
compose for a multiple percussion setup" it would have been more convenient
and
less e%pensive to use only one percussionist. &n eect, the sole percussionist was
re-uired to take on the role of an entire percussion section.
#nother in4uence on Stravinsky:s decision to use only one percussionist was
<azz. The percussion setup was Stravinsky:s creation, but the sound he was
attempting to emulate was aected by the <azz drum set.
The percussion instrumentation of +:1istoire du Soldat consists of two snare
drums without snares, a bass drum, a eld drum with and without snares,
suspended
cymbal, tambourine, and triangle.
The score
contains Stravinsky:s suggestions to the percussionist, including a setup
diagram.
The recommended setup ')igure 2.?( is in the shape of a diamond, allowing the
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 15/22
drums to be as close together as possible. # compact setup was essential in
allowing
the performer to accurately maneuver around the instruments.
The term #u milleu below the bass
drum sta instructs the performer to play these notes on the middle of the
drumhead
while #u bord, which is indicated ne%t to an additional line above the sta,dictates
that the performer play on the edge of the drumhead. The purpose of this
additional
line is to dierentiate the notes played on the edge from those played in the
center.
These instructions allow the performer to obtain two dierent sounds from one
drum.
&n many ways, The Ling of =enmark is an antipercussion piece. &t is to be
played very softly using only the hand and ngers I no sticks or
mallets...3ven though a tempo runs throughout, no rhythmic coherence
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 16/22
emerges. Sounds simply 4oat out, detached and weightless. ;ne instrument
has no more sonic gravity than another does...They are sounds in many
dierent loudnesses, but they are being heard from dierent distances. The
gong is really forte but is heard from the distance of fty yards. &t sounds as softas the little bell si% inches from your ear. *irages of distance appear and
evaporate again into music. &t is like rain or the sound of rain. These illusions
come from )eldman:s love of the pulsating but rhythmically directionless
canvases of *ark 0othko and other #merican #bstract 3%pressionists.
The score presents multiple problems to the performer> he must interpret the
grid
and its conse-uences on rhythm and time, translate the symbols contained in
the grid,
and devise an appropriate setup. &n order to interpret the notation illustrated in
)igure 7.?, the performer must refer to the performance notes provided at the
beginning of the score.
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 17/22
The rst problem the performer must solve is the interpretation of the grid.
#lthough the tempo of the piece is strictly structured through the grid, the actual
rhythms to be played are determined by the performer. 3ach bo% in the score
represents a metronome beat at a marking between AA and @2. The second
instruction
in the performance notes indicates that within the boundaries of each bo% the
performer has freedom to determine the se-uence of sounds and rhythm.
)eldman did not include an instrumentation list or a suggested setup in the
performance notes, so it is up to the discretion of the performer to choose the
instruments that will provide the registers of sounds. Throughout the score the
performer will nd instances of specically notated instrument groups, which will
help her in the determination of the complete setup.
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 18/22
Qtwo highregistered sounds, seven middleregistered sounds, and three low
registered
sounds are all performed within the time parameters of one bo%. hile the
duration
of the bo% is controlled, the performer determines the actual rhythms or
placement of
sounds within that time limit.
1ere, )eldman clearly indicated that the
particular sounds within the
bracket must be played on skin instruments. &n order to e%ecute this passage,
the setQup must include a minimum of three drums of three dierent registers.
&annis Cenakis Msappha is a composition for solo percussion, written for
performance by
Sylvio /ualda at the 3nglish ach )estival on *ay 2, ?@HA. The notation is placed
on a grid, although it diers from )eldman:s system in The Ling of =enmark by
maintaining control over rhythm. The unconventional score to Msappha presents
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 19/22
several challenges, including instrumentation choices and interpretation of the
notation.
The only specication that Cenakis assigned to the instrumentation is a
division into categories of membrane 'peau%(, wood 'bois(, and metal 'metau%(.
These specications are further divided into registers of high, medium, and low.
The
performer, therefore, determines the choice of e%act instruments
)igure A.? illustrates the instrument key found in the score. The left column
in each half of the bo%, labeled D0egistre de hauteurs,E indicates the register of
instruments 'highPmediumPlow( and each register is assigned a letter '#)(. The
middle column in each half is labeled D/radations dans les registres,E
designating the
graduation in the registers. These graduations are subdivisions within each
register
and are labeled numerically. The third column, labeled D5at8gorie de timbre ou
de
mat8riau%,E indicates the timbres or instrument suggestions that are assigned to
each
group. The key demonstrates that Cenakis divided the instrumentation, and thus
the
score, into si% main groups, labeled #).
#ccording to )igure A.?, /roup # consists of three high wooden or membrane
instruments, such as bongos or tom toms. /roup consists of three medium
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 20/22
membrane or wooden instruments. /roup 5 re-uires three low membrane
instruments, such as bass drums or #frican congas. The bottom instrument in
/roup
5, labeled DE, could be a bass drum played with a foot pedal in order to alleviateH!
technical diJculties in the latter half of the piece. /roup = indicates three
medium
metallic instruments. /roup 3 consists of one neutral metallic instrument, and
/roup ) indicates three very high or acute metallic instruments. Cenakis
described
the metallic sounds he desired as Dnot tamtams, but rough metal such as
railway lines
and pieces of iron or steel.
;nce the performer has chosen the instruments and has assigned each to a
label, such as #? or #2, she can begin to interpret the notation. The notation of
Msappha relies on the registers of instruments '#)( that Cenakis created. ithin
the
registers, he used a separate horizontal line to indicate each instrument.
#s illustrated in )igure A.2, the rhythmic notation is unconventional.
5onse-uently, even if the use of single horizontal lines 'instead of a traditional
sta(
is familiar to the performer, the method in which Cenakis notated the rhythms
will
not be. The rhythms are indicated by dots, similar to note heads without stems.
The
horizontal lines represent the specic instruments, and the location of the dots
on
specic lines determines the actual points of sound.
This informs the performer that the rst sound should be the
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 21/22
instrument he has chosen as the middle of the medium woodPmembrane group.
The
rhythms in which the dots are e%ecuted are determined by the intersection of the
vertical lines of the grid with the horizontal lines. The vertical lines mark specicpoints in the passage of time, which is represented by the horizontal lines" this
system
diers from how )eldman used his grid in The Ling of =enmark, where the
performer decided the specic rhythms within the boundaries of the vertical
lines.
# metronome set at ?F7 beats per minute will correspond to the vertical lines of
the
/rid.
The performer may wish to use two drums to represent line of /roup 5 I a
large concert bass drum for a deeper tone in the beginning of the piece, and the
pedal
bass drum to assist with e%ecution in the latter portion
&t seems likely that Cenakis created this notational system simply by
notating his piece e%actly as he conceived it> as an organization of points on a
line
intended to represent time.
Merhaps Cenakis, who intended this composition to be a study in rhythm,
simply wanted to devise the notation to represent rhythm in a basic wayRfree
from
the limitations of traditional notation and subdivisions of musical time. This is
especially evident in the fact that the concept of the piece was to consider time
Das a
continuous horizontal line, on which you place dots that correspond to the
attacks of
7/26/2019 notatii grafice
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/notatii-grafice 22/22
percussion.
&n utilizing his graphic system of notation,
Cenakis chose to strip away the familiar and allow the performer to concentrate
purely on the rhythmic construction.