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REFERENCES Abney, S. (1987). The English noun phrase in its sentential aspects. PhD. Dissertation, MIT. Adger, D. (2002). Core syntax: A minimalist approach. Oxford University Press. Carnie, A. (2006). Syntax: A generative introduction (2nd ed). Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic structures. The Hague: Mouton. Chomsky, N. (1970). Remarks on nominalization. In Jacobs, R and Rosenbaum, P (eds.) Reading in English Transformational Grammar. pp. 184-221. Waltham: Ginn. Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht: Foris.
Chomsky, N. (1993). A minimalist program for linguistic theory. In Hale, K., & Keyser S. (eds.). The view from building 20. Pp. 1-52. Canbridge: MIT Press.
Chomsky, N. (1994). Bare Phrase Structure. MIT Occasional Papers in Linguistics (5). Department of Linguistics and Philosophy, MIT.
Chomsky, N. (1995). The minimalist program. Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Chomksy, N. (1998). Minimalist inquiries: The framework. MIT Occasional Papers in Linguistics, no 15 (also published in R. Martin, D. Michaels and J. Uriagereka (eds), Step by step: Essays on minimalism in honor of Howard Lasnik. Pp. 89- 155. MIT Press, Cambridge Mass.
Cowper, E. A. (1992). A concise introduction to syntactic theory: The government-binding approach. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Crystal, D. (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (6th ed). Oxford: Blackwell. Culicover, P. W. (1976). Syntax. New York: Academic Press, INC. Derrick, D. and Archambault, D. (2010). TreeForm: Explaining and exploring grammar through syntax trees. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25(1), 53-66. Ernst, T. B. (2004). The syntax of adjuncts. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. (2011). An introduction to language (9th ed). Boston, MA: Cengage Wadsworth. Haegeman, L. (1994). Introduction to government & binding theory (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publisher Lt. Hasselgard, H. (2010). Adjunct adverbials in English. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Jackendoff, R. (1977). x syntax: A study of phrase structure. Linguistic Inquiry Monograph 2. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Kimball, J. (1973). Seven principles of surface structure parsing. Cognition, 2(1), 15-47. Kornai, A., & Pullum, G. K. (1990). The X-bar theory of phrase structure. Language, 24-50. Matthews, P. H. (2007). Concise dictionary of linguistics (2nd ed). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oaks, D. D. (2010). Structural ambiguity in English: An applied grammatical inventory. Volume 2. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. Ouhalla, J. (1999). Introducing transformational grammar: From principles and parameters to minimalism (2nd ed). London: Arnold. Qiang, W. (2010). Drawing tree diagrams: Problems and suggestions. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 1(6), 926 – 934. Radford, A. (1988). Transformational grammar: A first course. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Radford, A. (2009). An introduction to English sentence structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smet, L. B, & Vries, M. (2008). Visualizing non-subordination and multidominance in tree
diagrams: Testing five syntax tree variants. Diagrammatic Representation and Inference, 308-320.
Tomalin, M. (2006). Linguistics and the formal sciences: The origins of generative grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Trask, R.L. (1993). A dictionary of grammatical terms in linguistics. London: Routledge.
Wasow, T., Perfors, A., & Beaver, D. (2005). The puzzle of ambiguity. Morphology and the Web of grammar: Essays in memory of Steven G. Lapointe. CSLI Publications.
Wekker, H. & Haegeman, L. M. V. (1995). A modern course in English syntax. London: Routledge.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Instrument
Based on the X-bar theory, please draw the syntactic tree diagrams for the phrases and
clauses in Section A and B below. You must show all the minimal, intermediate, and
maximal projections within an XP.
Section A: Phrases
Q1) girl in the room with a broken heart
Q2) wash the car with two men
Q3) donation from the company to the school
Q4) walking in the street without his company
Q5) drawing the trees without hesitation
Q6) dreaming with a broken heart about your future
Q7) important for your health in the future
Q8) go to the library at night
Q9) comfortable with the arrangement in the morning
Section B: Clauses
Q10) They are recording a discussion on gambling in the class.
Q11) The linguistics students frequently buy books from Richard.
Q12) The old man likes the small house in the village.
Q13) Ladies will buy the expensive bag in the shop with all their money.
Q14) The naughty boy was poking the spider in the class with a pencil.
Q15) The dangerous dog in the park is chasing the dirty cat.
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Appendix B: My tree diagrams
Q1) [N girl] [PP in the room] [PP with a broken heart] N + (adjunct 1) + (adjunct 2)
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Q2a) [V wash] [DP the car] [PP with two men] V + (complement) + (adjunct 2)
Q2b) [V wash] the [N’ car with two men] V + (complement) + (adjunct 2)
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Q3) [N donation] [PP from the company] [PP to the school] N + (adjunct 1) + (adjunct 2)
Q4) [V walking] [PP in the street] [PP without his company] V + (adjunct 1) + (adjunct 2)
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Q5) [V drawing] [DP the trees] [PP without hesitation] V + (complement) + (adjunct)
Q6) [V dreaming] [PP with a broken heart] [PP about your future] V + (adjunct 1) + (adjunct 2)
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Q7) [A important] [PP for your health] [PP in the future] A + (adjunct 1) + (adjunct 2)
Q8) [V go] [PP to the library] [PP at night] V + (complement) + (adjunct)
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Q9) [A comfortable] [PP with the arrangement] [PP in the morning] A + (adjunct 1) + (adjunct 2)
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Q10a) They are [V’ recording a discussion on gambling] [PP in the class] Argument structure: record: [v]: [DP, DP] Thematic structure: record: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q10b) They are recording a discussion on [N’ gambling] [PP in the class] Argument structure: record: [v]: [DP, DP]
Thematic structure: record: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q11a) The linguistics students frequently [V’ buy books] [PP from Richard]
Argument structure: buy: [v]: [DP, DP] Thematic structure: buy: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q11b) The linguistics students frequently buy [N’ books] [PP from Richard]
Argument structure: buy: [v]: [DP, DP] Thematic structure: buy: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q11c) The linguistics students frequently [V’ buy books] [PP from Richard]
Argument structure: buy: [v]: [DP, DP] Thematic structure: buy: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q12a) The old man likes the [AP small] house [PP in the village] (adjunct 1) + head + (adjunct 2)
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Q12b) The old man likes the [AP small] house [PP in the village] (adjunct 1) + head + (adjunct 2)
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Q13a) Ladies will [V’ buy the expensive bag] [PP in the shop] with all their money
Argument structure: buy: [v]: [DP, DP] Thematic structure: buy: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q13b) Ladies will buy the [N’ expensive bag] [PP in the shop] with all their money
Argument structure: buy: [v]: [DP, DP] Thematic structure: buy: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q13c) Ladies will buy the expensive [N’ bag] [PP in the shop] with all their money
Argument structure: buy: [v]: [DP, DP] Thematic structure: buy: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q14a) The naughty boy was [V’ poking the spider] [PP in the classroom] with a pencil
Argument structure: poke: [v]: [DP, DP] Thematic structure: poke: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q14b) The naughty boy was poking the [N’ spider] [PP in the class] with a pencil
Argument structure: poke: [v]: [DP, DP] Thematic structure: poke: [v]: <agent, theme>
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Q15a) The [AP dangerous] dog [PP in the park] is chasing the dirty cat (adjunct 1)+ head + (adjunct 2)
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Q15b) The [AP dangerous] dog [PP in the park] is chasing the dirty cat (adjunct 1) + head + (adjunct 2)
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Appendix C: Participants’ tree diagrams
Participant 1_Q3
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Participant 1_Q15
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Participant 2_Q15
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Participant 3_Q5
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Participant 3_Q9
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Participant 4_Q12
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Participant 6_Q2
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Participant 6_Q10
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Participant 7_Q6
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Participant 7_Q14
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Participant 8_Q2
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Participant 8_Q8
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Participant 8_Q12
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Participant 9_Q2
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Participant 10_Q15
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Participant 12_Q1
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Participant 12_Q6
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Participant 12_Q7
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Participant 13_Q4
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Participant 14_Q11
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Participant 14_Q12
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Participant 15_Q12
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Participant 16_Q1
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Participant 16_Q12
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Participant 16_Q15
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Participant 17_Q1
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134
Participant 17_Q2
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135
Participant 19_Q10