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Managing Organisations and People MGMT1001

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PART 1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANISATIONS AND MANAGEMENT

WHAT IS AN ORGANISATION?

Organisation happens when people work together to achieve a desired goal. It has a distinct purpose,includes people and has deliberate structure.

Example:schools, businesses, and government departments

Characteristics of organisations:

Size (small, medium, large) Industry (consumer goods, finance, service, telecommunication) Ownership type (sole trader, company (private/public), membership, Not For Profit) Owner domicile (local, national, international) Location Physical environment (open plan, personal office) Remuneration and benefits (yearly bonus, share options, employee discount, other benefits)

An organisation

Has: Is: Exists:

Purpose, objectives, goals Structure, rules and boundaries People Action designed to achieve the goals

Futureoriented

Part of anopen system

Independently of thepeople within them theygo on while memberschange

The context of organisations and management today

Technological change new products, new ways of doing things, outsourcing and off shoring International division of labour Changing conception of time and space Changing demographics

Societal, economic, global and technological changes have created an environment in which successfulorganisations must embrace new ways of getting their work done.

Examples: more sustainable organisational practices, global economic, social and environmentalchallenges, and the changing employee expectations.

Common characteristics of organisations

1. Distinct purpose this refers to the set of goals the organisation hopes to accomplish2. People working together helps achieve business goals3. Deliberate structure the simple network that allows members to do their work. The structure may

be open and flexible

The nature of an organisation is changing; it is no longer a structure with clear identifiable division,

departments and work units. Todays organisations have a flatter, networked structure that relies onflexible arrangements, employee work teams, open communication systems (2-ways) and supplieralliances.

The changing organisations

Traditional organisation New contemporary organisation

Stable Inflexible Job focused Work is defined by job positions Individual oriented Permanent jobs Command oriented Managers always make decisions Rule oriented Relatively homogenous workplace Hierarchical relationships

Dynamic Flexible Skills focused Work is defined in terms of tasks to be done Team oriented Temporary jobs Involvement oriented Employees participate in decision making Customer oriented Diverse workforce Flexible working hours

WEEK1:T1


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WEEK2:T2

WHY ARE MANAGERS IMPORTANT?

1. Organisations need their managerial skills and abilities more than ever in uncertain, complex andchaotic times. As organisations deal with todays challenges the worldwide economic climate, therisks of global warming, changing technology, and ever-increasing globalisation managers playan important role in identifying critical issues and crafting responses

2. They are critical to getting things done. Managers are to ensure that all the employees are doingtheir jobs, so that the organisation can achieve its purpose

3. The Gallup Organisation has found that the most important variable in employee productivity andloyalty is the quality of the relationship between employees and their direct supervisors

WHO ARE MANAGERS?

Managersomeone who coordinates and oversees the work of other people so that organisational goalscan be accomplished. A managers job is about helping others do theirwork and achieve goals.

It is easier to classify managers in traditionally structured organisations, i.e. those with deliberate workarrangement or structures shaped like a pyramid, reflecting the fact that the number of employees isgreater at the bottom than at the top.

First-line managersthe lowest level of management and manage thework of non-managerial employees who are directly involved with producingthe organisations products or servicing the organisations customers. They

have titles like supervisors, shift managers, office manager, team leadersand forepersons.

Middle managersinclude all levels of management between the first-linelevel and the top level of the organisation. They manage the work of first-line managers and may have titles like regional manager, department head,project leader, store manager, dean and division manager.

Top managersare responsible for making organisation-wide decisions and establishing the goals and

plans that affect the entire organisation. They typically have titles such as managing director, ChiefExecutive Officer (CEO), Chief Operating Officer and chairman of the board. They are involved in creatingand implementing broad and comprehensive changes that affect the entire organisation.

However, not all organisations use a traditional structured pyramid. Some organisations are more flexibleand loosely configured, with work being done by ever-changing teams of employees who move from oneproject to another.

WHAT IS MANAGEMENT?

Managementis the process of coordinating and overseeing the work activities of others so that their

activities are completed efficiently and effectively

Managers cannot do what they want anytime, anywhere or in any way; management involves ensuringwork activities are completed efficiently and effectively by the people responsible for doing them.Management is concerned with being efficient and effective when completing activities so thatorganisational goals are attained.

Efficiencydoing things right, or getting the most output from the least amount of inputs. This isconcerned with the means of getting things done

Effectivenessdoing the right tings, or completing activities so that organisational goals are attained.This is concerned with the ends (result), or the attainment of organisational goals

Management must be concerned about getting activities completed and meeting organisational goals(effectiveness), and doing them as efficiently as possible.

The aim of management


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TIMELINE OF MANAGEMENT THEORY

Scientific management

Fredrick W. Taylor (1856-1915) is best known for defining the techniques of scientific management The systematic study of relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the

work process to increase efficiency.

Increasing specialisation and the division of labour the production process would become moreefficient

Managers should scientifically select and train, teach and develop workers (the right person for theright job)

Clear rules and responsibilities between management and employees Is the invention of scientific management a good thing?

o Good for consumers and CEOo Bad for employees

Taylor believed that if the amount of time and effort that each worker expended to produce a unitof output (a finished good or service) could be reduced by increasing specialization and the divisionof labour, then the production process would become more efficient.

4 principles of Scientific management:o Develop a science for each element of the job, which replaces the old rule of thumb

method

o Managers should scientifically select and then train, teach and develop workerso Managers should actively cooperate with the workers to ensure all work is being done in

accordance with the principles of the science developed

o An almost equal division of the work and the responsibility should be between themanagement and the workers

The Scientific-Technical Revolution and its effects on organisations and managemento The ideas and methods of Scientific Management were what the Americans manufacturing

industries needed in that era

To extend the transformation of craft work (human as the agent) to mechanisationand transformation

o Rise of factory system of production Growth in number of employees Increasing use of technology in production Rise of corporations meaning owners did not necessarily work in the organisation

(e.g. the typical share-holder)

o Key features/ developments Specialisation of labour and the production line Systematic study of work tasks to create rules or one best way of performing each

task

Focus on both job design and organisational structures and administration


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o Taylor (unknown to himself) had laid the groundwork for automation and off shoring He analysed work processes into distinct, unambiguous pieces => which is exactly

what computers and unskilled people would follow and execute, based oninstructions designed by others.

Under Scientific Management, workers had very little opportunity for furtherthinking, experimenting or suggestion making.

One of the big problems with the introduction of all of these scientific methodswas that it reduced work/ tasks to menial or boring work

Administrative management: Characteristics:

o Spealisation of labouro Formal rules and procedureso Well-defined hierarchyo Career advancement based on merit

Principle:o Fayol developed a list of 14 principles that he believed were essential to increasing

efficiency in the management process.

o Fayol is also well-known for articulating the 5 (now 4) managerial functions whatmanagers must do to create a high performing organisation.

Planningchoosing appropriate goals for the organisation Organisingdesigning

processes and systems toachieve those goals

Commandselecting theright employees for the job,

evaluating workperformance, motivatingindividual employees etc

Co-ordinatingputtingtogether relationships/ workteams to ensure thatproduction runs smoothly

Controllingmeasuring andmonitoring to evaluate howthe system is working

Behavioural Management:

Developed in response to Scientific approaches to management Focus on motivational and behaviour as a mechanism to improve organisational performance Hawthorne Studies of the 1920s Maslows Hierarchy of Needs McGregors Theory X and Theory Y


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WHAT DO MANAGERS DO?

MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

Planning Organising Leading Controlling Leads to

Defining goals,establishingstrategy, &developing plans to

coordinateactivities

Determining whatneeds to be done,how it will be done,and who is to do it

Motivating, leadingand any otheractions involved indealing with people

Monitoringactivities to ensurethat they areaccomplished as

planned

Achieving theorganisationsstated purposes

MANAGEMENT ROLES

Management rolesspecific categories of managerial behaviour expected of and exhibited by a manager

In the 1970s-80s, ideal managerial roles were challenged by researcher who actually observedmanagers in their day-to-day life, and found that managers have a very different job than theseideals

One of the most famous studies was done by Henry Mintzberg who spent many months observingmanagers in action, and has other managers keep a detailed record of their actions each day. Hefound that managers spend much more time doing, than thinking

Mintzbergs studies allowed him to perform 10 d ifferent but highly interrelated management roles(specific categories of managerial behaviour)

Mintzbergs managerial roles:

INTERPERSONAL ROLES

Interpersonal rolesmanagerial roles that involve people and other duties that are ceremonialand symbolic in nature

o Figurehead: symbolic head; obliged to perform a number of routine duties of a legal orsocial nature

o Leader: responsible for the motivation of subordinates; responsible for staffing, trainingand associated duties

o Liaison: maintains self-developed network of outside contracts and informers who providefavours and information

INFORMATIONAL ROLES

Informational roles managerial roles that involve receiving, collecting and disseminatinginformation

o Monitor: seeks and receives wide variety of internal and external information to developthorough understanding of organisation and environment

o Disseminator: transmits information received from outsiders or from subordinates tomembers of the organisation

o Spokesperson: transmits information to outsiders on organisations plans, policies, actions,results, etc

DECISIONAL ROLES

Managerial roles that revolve around making decisionso Entrepreneur: searches organisation and its environment for opportunities and initiates

improvement projects

o Disturbance handler: responsible for the allocation of organisational resources of all kinds making or approving all significant organisational decisions

o Negotiator: responsible for representing the organisation at major negotiationsAN EVALUATION

Mintzberg concluded that their actual work activities involved interacting with other, with the organisationand with the context outside the organisation. He also proposed that as managers perform these roles,their activities include reflection (thoughtful thinking) and action (practical doing)

MANAGEMENT SKILLS

Research by Robert L. Katz found that managers need 3 essential skills or competencies: technical, humanand conceptual. He also found that the relative importance of these skills varied according to themanagers level within the organisation.


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TECHNICAL SKILLS

Technical skillsknowledge of and proficiency in a certain specialised field

These skills tend to be more importance for lower-level managers because they typically are managing

employees who are using tools and techniques to produce the organisations products or service theorganisations customers. Because of the importance of these skills at lower organisational levels,employees with excellent technical skills often get promoted to first-line manager on the basis of theseskills.

HUMAN SKILLS

Human skillsthe ability to work well with other people individually and in a group

These skills are important for managers at all levels. Managers need to be aware of their own attitudes,assumptions and beliefs, as well as sensitive to their subordinates perceptions, needs and motivations.Because all managers deal directly with people, human skills are crucial. Katz said that human skillsremain just as important at the top levels of management as they do at the lower levels. Managers withgood human or interpersonal skills are able to get the best out of people. They know how to communicate,motivate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and trust

CONCEPTUAL SKILLS

Conceptual skillsthe ability to think and to conceptualise about abstract and complex situations

Managers must have the ability to conceptualise and to think about abstract situations. They must be ableto see the organisation as a whole and understand the relationships between various subunits, and to

visualise how the organisation fits into its broader environment. These abilities are essential to effectivedecision making, and all managers are involved in making decisions. Katz proposed that these skillsbecome more important in top management positions. The reason for this is that upper-level managersoften deal with abstract ideas, whereas lower-level managers normally spend more time dealing withobservable objects and processes

Other important managerial skills

Managing human capital Effective communication Inspiring commitment Managing change Structuring work and getting things done Facilitating the psychological and social

contexts of work

Using purposeful networking Collaboration and team building Critical thinking and problem solving Managing decision-making processes Managing strategy, creativity and innovation Managing logistics and technology

21STCENTURY UNDERSTANDINGS OF MANAGEMENT

Increasing emphasis on motivation, leadership and relationships The key skill is communication both oral and verbal but also the ability to develop and effectively

communicate a vision/position to different audiences the management of meaning

Less overt control as organisations take advantage technologyDEMANDS ON MODERN MANAGERS

Managers in the 21stcentury often required to work smarter and harder increased workinghours, doing more with less staff/resources, the globalisation of the business environment

Pressures of conflicting demands delivering shareholder value while being ethically andenvironmentally responsible

Empowerment efforts of the 1990s has seen increased demands for flexibility, work life balanceand learning opportunities by staff


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SUMMARY 1

Describe the characteristics of an organisationo Managers work in an organisation, which is a deliberate arrangement of people to

accomplish some specific purpose.

o Organisations have 3 characteristics: They have a distinctive purpose They are composed of people They have a deliberate structure

o Many of todays organisations are structured to be more open, flexible and responsive tochanges, and have undergone some major changes in relation to how they operate

Explain why managers are important to organisationso Managers are important to organisations for three reasons:

Organisations need their managerial skills and abilities in uncertain, complex andchaotic times

Managers are critical to getting things done in organisations Managers contribute to employee productivity and loyalty

o The way employees are managed can affect the organisations financial performanceo Managerial ability has been shown to be important in creating organisational value

Classify managers and non-managerial employeeso Managers coordinate and oversee the work of other people so that organisational goals can

be accomplished. Non-managerial employees work directly on a job or task and have noone reporting to them. In traditionally structured organisations, managers can be first-line,middle or top. In other more loosely configured organisations, the managers may not be asreadily identifiable although someone must fulfil that role

Define the terms: management, efficiency and effectivenesso Management is what managers do, and management involves coordinating and overseeing

the efficient and effective completion of others work activities

o Efficiency means getting the most output from the least amount of input, or doing thingsright

o Effectiveness means doing those work activities that help the organisation to reach itsgoals, or doing the right things

Describe the functions, roles and skills of managerso The 4 functions of management:

Planning (defining goals, establishing strategies and developing plans) Organising (arranging and structuring work) Leading (working with and through people) Controlling (monitoring, comparing and correcting work performance)

o Mintzbergs managerial roles include: Interpersonal roles, which involve people and other ceremonials/symbolic duties(figurehead, leader and liaison) Informational roles, which involve collecting, receiving and disseminating

information (monitor, disseminator and spokesperson)

Decisional roles, which involve making choices (entrepreneur, disturbance handler,resource allocator and negotiator)

Mintzbergs newest description of what managers do proposes that managing isabout influencing action, which managers do in 3 ways:

By managing actions directly By managing people who take action By managing information that impels people to take action

o Katz managerial skills include technical (job-specific knowledge and techniques), human orinterpersonal (ability to work well with people) and conceptual (ability to think andconceptualise). Technical skills are most important for lower-level managers, whileconceptual skills are most important for top managers. Human skills are equally importantfor all managers.


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WEEK3:T3

CHAPTER 9 UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

WHY LOOK AT INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATIONS?

Behaviourhow people act

Organisational behaviour (OB)a field of study concerned with the actions (behaviours) at work

Organisational behaviour has a small visible dimension and a much larger hidden portion.

FOCUS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Organisational behaviour focuses on 2 main areas:

Individual behaviouro This area includes topics such as attitudes, personality, perception,

learning and motivation

Group behaviouro Includes norms, roles, team building, leadership and conflict

GOALS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

The goals of OB are to explain (why employees engage in some behavioursrather than others), predict (how employees will respond to various actionsthe manager might take) and influence (how employees behave) behaviour

IMPORTANT EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOURS

Employee productivitya performance measure of both efficiency andeffectiveness

Absenteeismthe failure to report to work Turnoverthe voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organisation

o It can be a problem because of increased recruiting, selection, training costs and workdisruptions

Organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB)discretionary behaviour that is not part of anemployees formal job requirements, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of

the organisation

Job satisfactionan employees general attitude towards his/her job Workplace misbehaviourany form of intentional behaviour that has negative consequences for

the organisation or individuals within the organisation

ATTITUDES

Attitudesevaluative statements, either favourable or unfavourable, concerning objects, people orevents

Components of an attitude:

Cognition componentthat part of an attitude that is made up of the beliefs, opinions,knowledge and information held by a person

Affective componentthat part of an attitude that is the emotional or feeling part Behavioural componentthat part of an attitude that refers to an intention to behave in a

certain way towards someone or something

Job-related attitudes:

JOB SATISFACTIONA person with a high level of job satisfaction has a positive attitude towards their job, while aperson who is dissatisfied with their job has a negative attitude

Job satisfaction is affected by level of income earned and by the type of job a worker does.

The effects job satisfaction has on employee behaviour:

Satisfaction and productivityo Satisfied and happy employees = productivity

Satisfaction and absenteeismo Satisfied employees tend to have lower levels of absenteeism

Job satisfaction and turnovero Satisfied employees have lower levels of turnover; dissatisfied employees have higher

levels of turnover

o Turnover is affected by the level of employee performance The preferential treatment afforded superior employees makes satisfaction less

important in predicting their turnover decisions


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Job satisfaction and customer satisfactiono The level of job satisfaction for frontline employees is related to increased customer

satisfaction and loyalty

o Actions to increase job satisfaction for customer service workers: Hire upbeat and friendly employees Reward superior customer service Provide a positive work climate Use attitude surveys to track employee satisfaction

o Interaction with dissatisfied customers can increase an employees job dissatisfactionJOB INVOLVEMENT

Job involvementthe degree to which an employee identifies with his/her job, activelyparticipates in it, and considers his/her job performance to be important to self-worth

High levels of job involvement has been found to be related to fewer absences, lower resignationrates and higher employee engagement with their work

ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT

Organisational commitmentan employees orientation towards the organisation in terms of

his/her loyalty to, identification with and involvement in the organisation

Leads to lower levels of both absenteeism and turnover

EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENTEmployee engagementemployees being connected to, satisfied with and enthusiastic abouttheir job

Benefits include:

Highly engaged employees are two-and-a-half times more likely to be top performer than theirless-engaged co-workers

Companies with highly engaged employees have higher retention rates, which help keeprecruiting and training costs low

ATTITUDES AND CONSISTENCY

Individuals try to reconcile differing attitudes and align their attitudes and behaviour so they appearrational and consistent.

When there is an inconsistency, they will take steps to make it consistent either by altering their attitudes

or behaviour, or by developing a rationalisation for the inconsistency.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Cognitive dissonanceany incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes, or between behaviourand attitudes

Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and individuals will try to reduce the dissonance

Intensity of the desire to reduce the dissonance is influenced by:

The importance of the factors creating the dissonance The degree to which an individual believes that the factors causing the dissonance are controllable The rewards that may be involved is dissonance

PERSONALITY

Personalitythe unique combination of emotional, thought and behavioural patterns that affects how aperson reacts and interacts with others

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI)

1. Social interaction Extrovert or Introvert (E or I)o An extrovert is someone who is outgoing, dominant and often aggressive, and who wants

to change the world. They need a work environment that is varied and action oriented, thatlets them be with others, and that gives them a variety of experiences

o An introvert is someone with is shy and withdrawn and focuses on understanding theworld. They prefer a work environment that is quiet and concentrated, that allows them tobe alone, and that gives them a change to explore in depth a limited set of experiences

2. Preference for gathering data Sensing or iNtuitive (S or N)o Sensing types dislike new problems unless there are standard ways to solve them; they

like an established routine, have a high need for closure, shoe patience with routine detailsand tend to be good at precise work

o Intuitive types are individuals who like solving new problems, dislike doing the same thingover and over again, jump to conclusions, are impatient with routine details and disliketaking time for precision


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3. Preference for decision making Feeling or Thinking (F or T)o Feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions. They are aware of other people

and their feelings, need occasional praise, dislike telling people unpleasant things, tend tobe sympathetic and relate well to most people

o Thinking types use reason and logic to handle problems. They are unemotional anduninterested in peoples feeling, are able to reprimand people and fire them whennecessary, may seem hard-hearted, and tend to relate well only to other thinking types

4. Style of making decisions Perceptive or Judgemental (P or J)o Perceptive types are curious, spontaneous, flexible, adaptable and tolerant. They focus on

starting a task, postpone decisions, and want to find out all about the task before startingit

o Judging types want control and prefer their world to be ordered and structured. They aregood planners, decisive, purposeful and exacting. They focus on completing a task, makedecisions quickly, and want only the information necessary to get a task done

The MBTI has been used to help managers select employees who are well matched to certain types ofjobs. It is also likely that you will be asked to take a Myers-Briggs test as part of a selection process. TheMBTI can be a useful tool for understanding personality and predicting peoples behaviour.

THE BIG 5MODEL

Big Five Modelfive-factor model of personality that includes extraversion, agreeableness,conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience

Extroversionthe degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, assertive and comfortable inrelationships with others Agreeablenessthe degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative and trusting Conscientiousness the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent and

achievement oriented

Emotional stabilitythe degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic and secure (positive) ortense, nervous, depressed and insecure (negative)

Openness to experiencethe degree to which some is has a wide range of interests and isimaginative, fascinated with novelty, artistically sensitive and intellectual

The Big 5 Model provides more than just a personality framework. Research has shown that importantrelationships exist between these personality dimensions and job performance

ADDITIONAL PERSONALITY INSIGHTS

LOCUS OF CONTROL

Locus of controla personality attribute that reflects the degree to which people believe they controltheir own fate

External locus: persons who believe that what happens to them are due to luck or chance (theuncontrollable effects of outside forces)

Internal locus: persons who believe that they control their own destiny

MACHIAVELLIANISM

Machiavellianism (Mach)a measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic, maintain emotionaldistance and believe that ends can justify means

SELF-ESTEEM (SE)

Self-esteeman individuals degree of like or dislike for himself or herself

SELF-MONITORINGSelf-monitoringa personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust his or her behaviour toexternal, situational factors

High self-monitors:

Are sensitive to external cues and behave differently in different situations Can present contradictory public persona and private selves

Low self-monitors

Do not adjust their behaviour to the situation Are behaviourally consistent in public and private

RISK TAKING

Risk takingthe willingness to take risks

OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS

Proactive personalitypeople who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action and persevereuntil meaningful change occurs

Resiliencean individuals ability to overcome challenges and turn them into opportunities


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EMOTIONS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotionsintense feelings that are directed at someone or something

Emotional intelligencethe ability to notice and manage emotional cues and information

EI composed of 5 dimensions:

Self awareness being aware of what you are feeling Self-management being able to manage your emotions and impulses Self-motivation being able to persist in the face of setbacks and failures Empathy being aware of how others are feeling Social skills being able to handle the emotions of others

IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS

The main value in understanding personality differences lies in employee selection, which is demonstratedby the numbers of organisations today that use personality tests when recruiting. Managers are likely tohave higher-performing and more satisfied employees if consideration is given to matching personalitieswith job.

John Hollands theory state that an employees satisfaction with his or her job, as well as his/her likelihoodof leaving that job, depend on the degree to which the individuals personality matches the occupationalenvironment. Hollands theory proposed that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personalityand occupation are compatible.

The key points of this theory:

There do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality between individuals There are different types of jobs People in job environments compatible with their personality types should be more satisfied and

less likely to resign voluntarily than should people in incongruent jobs

PERCEPTION

Perceptionthe process of organising and interpreting sensory impressions in order to give meaning tothe environment

Factors that influence perception

Perceivers personal characteristics (interests, biases andexpectations)

Targets characteristics (distinctiveness, contrast and similarity) Situation (context) factors such as place, time, location draw

attention or distract from the target

ATTRIBUTION THEORY

Attribution theory a theory that explains how we judge people differently depending on the meaning weattribute to a given behaviour

Internally caused behaviour: under the individuals control

Externally caused behaviour: due to outside factors

Determining the source of behaviours:

Distinctiveness refers to whether an individualdisplays different behaviours in different situations

Consensus: behaviours similar to others in samesituation

Consistency: regularity of the same behaviourFundamental attribution errorthe tendency tounderestimate the influence of external factors andoverestimate the influence of internal factors when makingjudgments about the behaviours of others

Self-serving biasthe tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors whileputting the blame for failures on external factors

SHORTCUTS FREQUENTLY USED IN JUDGING OTHERS

Assumed similaritythe belief that others are like oneself

Stereotypingjudging a person on the basis of ones perception of a group to which he or she belongs

Halo effecta general impression of an individual based on a single characteristic


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SUMMARY 9

Identify the focus of individual behaviouro Just like an iceberg, it is the hidden organisational elements (attitudes, perceptions,

norms) that make understanding individual behaviour so challenging. OB focuses on 3areas: individual behaviour, group behaviour and organisational aspects. The goals of OBare to explain, predict and influence behaviour

Define the 6 important employee behaviours that managers want to explain, predict andinfluence

o Employee productivity is a performance measure of both efficiency and effectivenesso Absenteeism is the failure to report to worko Turnover is the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organisationo Organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) is discretionary behaviour that is not part of an

employees formal job requirements but which promotes the effective functioning of anorganisation

o Job satisfaction is an individuals general attitude towards his/her jobo Workplace misbehaviour is any intentional employee behaviour that is potentially harmful

to the organisation or individuals within the organisations

Explain the role that attitudes play in job performanceo Cognitive component refers to the beliefs, opinions, knowledge or information held by a

person

o Affective component refers to the emotional or feeling part of an attitudeo Behavioural component refers to an intention to behave in a certain way towards someone

or something

o Job satisfaction refer to a persons general attitude towards his/her job performanceo Job involvement is the degree to which an employee identifies with his/her job, actively

participates in it and considers his/her job performance to be important to his/her self-worth

o Organisational commitment is the degree to which an employee identifies with a particularorganisation and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in that organisation

o Employee engagement is when employees are connected to, satisfied with an enthusedabout their job

o Job satisfaction positively influences productivity, lowers absenteeism levels, lowersturnover rates, promotes positive customer satisfaction, moderately promotes OCB, andhelps minimise workplace behaviour, or rationalising the inconsistency

Describe the various personality theorieso The MBTI measures 4 dimensions: social interaction, preference for gathering data,

preference for decision making, and style of making decisions

o The Big Five Model consists of 5 personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness,conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience

o The five personality traits that help explain individual behaviour in organisations are locusof control, Machiavellianism, self-esteem, self-monitoring and risk taking.

o Other personality traits include proactive personality and resilience. How a person respondsemotionally and how they deal with their emotions is a function of personality. A person

who is emotionally intelligent has the ability to notice and to manage emotional cues andinformation

Describe perception and factors that influence ito Perception is how we give meaning to our environment by organising and interpreting

sensory impressions. Since people behave according to their perceptions, managers needto understand it.

o Attribution theory depends of 3 factors: Distinctiveness is whether an individual displays different behaviours in different

situations (i.e. is the behaviour unusual?) Consensus is whether other facing a similar situation respond in the same way Consistency is when a person engages in behaviours regularly and consistently.

o Whether these 3 factors are high or low in frequency helps managers determine whetheremployee behaviour is attributed to external or internal causes

o The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to underestimate the influence ofexternal factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors.

o The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute our own successes to internal factors andto put the blame for personal failure on external factors


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WEEK4:T4

CHAPTER 6 MANAGERS AND COMMUNICATION

UNDERSTANDING MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communicationthe transfer and understanding of meaning. Communication is a two-way transactiondialogue and is about overcoming barriers

Interpersonal communicationcommunication between two or more people

Organisational communicationall the patterns, networks and systems of communication within an

organisation

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is being used to control It encourages motivationby clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they are doing,

and what can be done to improve their performance if it is not up to par

Communication provides a release for emotional expressionof feelings and for fulfilment of socialneeds

Individuals and groups need informationin order to get things done in organisationsINTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal: Written: Non-verbal:

Pronunciation Accents Clarity

Sentenceconstruction

Flow/logic betweenparagraphs

The use ofappropriate

language Clarity Presentation

Kinesics Occulesics Haptics 5 categories based on degrees of

intimacyo Functional/professionalo Social/politeo Friendship/warmtho Love/intimacyo Sexual

Proxemics: 4 zones:o Intimate zone (15-45 cm)o Personal zone (45-120cm)o Social (1.2-3.5m)o Public zone (3.5+m)

Paralanguageo Tempoo Pitcho Intonation

Before communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed, must exist. It

passes between a source (the sender) and a receiver. The message is converted to symbolic form(encoding) and passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver, who retranslates the sendersmessage (decoding).

Messagea purpose to be conveyed

Encodingconverting a message into symbols

Channelthe medium a message travels alongDecodingretranslating a senders message

Communication processthe seven elementsinvolved in transferring meaning from one person toanother

Noiseany disturbances that interfere with thetransmission, receipt or feedback of a message

A sender initiates a message be encoding a thought.

4 conditions influence the effectiveness of that encoded message:

The skills Attitudes Knowledge of the sender Socio-cultural system


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Noise can distort the communication process through the process of conveying a message from a sender toa receiver.

METHODS OF COMMUNICATING INTERPERSONALLY

Communication methods:

Face-to-face Telephone Group meetings Formal presentations Memos Traditional mail Fax machines Employee publication Company publications

Bulletin boards Audio- and videotapes Employee publications Hotlines Email Computer conferencing Voice mail Teleconferences Videoconferences

Managers can use 12 questions to help them evaluate the various communication methods:

Feedback: how quickly can the receiver respond to the message Complexity capacity: can the method effectively process complex messages? Breadth potential: how many different messages can be transmitted using this method? Confidentiality: can communicators be reasonably sure their messages are received only by those

intended?

Encoding ease: can the sender easily and quickly use this channel? Decoding case: can the receiver easily and quickly decode messages? Time-space constraint: do senders and receivers need to communicate at the same time and in the

same space?

Cost: how much does it cost to use this method? Interpersonal warmth: how well does this method convey interpersonal warmth? Formality: does this method have the needed amount of formality Scanability: does this method allow the message to be easily browsed or scanned for relevant

information?

Time of consumption: does the sender or the receiver exercise the greater control over when todeal with the message?

Which method a manager ultimately chooses should reflect the needs of the sender, the attributes of themessage, the attributes of the channel and the needs of the receiver.

Non-verbal communicationcommunication transmitted without words

An important part of interpersonal communication is non-verbal communication. Some of the mostmeaningful communications are neither spoken nor written.

Best-known types of non-verbal communication:

Body languagerefers to gestures, facial expressions and other movements of the body thatconvey meaning

o Knowing the meaning behind someones body moves and learning how to put forth yourbest body language can help you personally and professionally

Verbal intonationam emphasis given to words or phrases that conveys meaningBARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

FILTERING

Filteringthe deliberate manipulation of information to make it appear more favourable to the receiver.

As information is communicated up through organisational levels, it is condensed and synthesised bysenders so that those on top do not become overloaded with information.

The more hierarchical levels there are in an organisation, the more opportunities there are for filtering. Asorganisations become less dependent on strict hierarchical arrangements and instead use morecollaborative, cooperative work arrangements, information filtering may become less of a problem. The useof email to communicate in organisations reduces filtering because communication is more direct


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The organisational culture encourages or discourages filtering by the type of behaviour it rewards. Themore that organisational rewards emphasise style and appearance, the more managers will be motivatedto filter communications in their favour.

EMOTIONS

A person will often interpret the same message differently, depending on his/her emotion (happy or sad).People often disregard their rational and objective thinking processes and substitute emotionaljudgements.

INFORMATION OVERLOAD

Information overloadwhen the information a person as to work with exceeds his/her processingcapacity

When this happen, managers tend to select out, ignore, pass over, forget information, or they may put offfurther processing until the overload situation is over. This results in lost information and less effectivecommunication.

DEFENSIVENESS

When people feel they are being threatened, they tend to react in ways that reduce their ability to achievemutual understanding. I.e. they become defensive, engaging in behaviours such as verbally attackingothers, making sarcastic remarks, being overly judgmental and questioning others motives.

LANGUAGE

Words mean different things to different people. Age, education and cultural background are three of themore obvious variables that influence the language a person uses and the definitions they give to words.

In an organisation, employees typically come from diverse backgrounds and have different patterns ofspeech. Even employees from the same organisation but in different departments often have differentjargon

Jargonspecialised terminology or technical language that members of a group use to communicateamong themselves

NATIONAL CULTURE

Communication differences can also arise from ones national culture, as well as from the different

languages that individuals use. Interpersonal communication is not conducted in the same way around theworld.

In individualistic countries, communication patterns tend to be oriented to the individual and are clearlyspelled out. Managers rely heavily on reports, memos, announcements, and other formal forms ofcommunication

In collectivist or socially oriented cultures, there is a strong desire for harmony, hierarchy and saving face.

OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS

USE FEEDBACK

Many communication problems can be directly attributed to misunderstandings and inaccuracies. Theseproblems are less likely to occur if the manager uses the feedback loop in the communication process,either verbally or non-verbally

The manager can ask as set of questions about a message to determine whether or not the message wasreceived and understood as intended. The manager can also ask the receiver to restate the message inhis/her own words. If the manager then hears what was intended, understanding and accuracy should beenhanced.

Feedback also includes subtler methods than directly asking questions or having the receiver summarisethe message. General comments can give a manager a sense of the receivers reaction to a message.

Feedback does not have to be conveyed in words, actions of individuals can show whether a message isunderstood

SIMPLIFY LANGUAGE

Effective communication is achieved when a message is received and understood. Understanding isimproved by simplifying the language used in relation to the audience intended.

LISTEN ACTIVELY

Listening is an active search for meaning, whereas hearing is passive. In listening, two people are engagedin thinking: the sender and the receiver

Active listeninglistening for full meaning without making premature judgments or interpretations

Active listening is enhanced by developing empathy with the sender, because senders differ in attitudes,

interests, needs and expectations, empathy makes it easier to understand the actual content of amessage. An empathetic listener reserves judgement on the messages content and carefully listens to

what is being said. The goal is to improve your ability to receive the full meaning of a communicationwithout having it distorted by premature judgments or interpretations

Active listening behaviours

Avoid interrupting speaker Show empathy


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Paraphrase what has been said Avoid distracting actions or gestures Do not over-talk

Show interest by making eye contact Exhibit affirmative head nods and

appropriate facial expressions

CONSTRAIN EMOTIONS

Emotions can severely cloud and distort the transference of meaning. It is important to refrain fromcommunicating until he/her has regained composure.

WATCH NON-VERBAL CUES

Non-verbal messages carry a great deal of weight. When non-verbal cues are inconsistent with the oral

message, the receiver becomes confused and the clarity of the message suffers.ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION

FORMAL VERSUS INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Formal communicationcommunication that follows the official chain of command or which is requiredto do ones job

Informal communicationcommunication that is not defined by the organisations structural hierarchy

Informal communication system fulfils 2 purposes in organisations:

It permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction It can improve an organisations performance by creating alternative, and frequently faster and

more efficient, channels of communication

DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION FLOW

DOWNWARDDownward communicationcommunication that flows downward from a manager to employees

It is used to inform, direct, coordinate and evaluate employees. When managers assign goals to theiremployees, they are using downward communication. Managers are also using downward communicationbe providing employees with job descriptions, informing them of organisational policies and procedures,pointing out problems that need attention, or evaluating their performance.

UPWARD COMMUNICATION

Upward communicationcommunication that flows upward from employees to managers

It keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, their co-workers and the organisation ingeneral. Managers also rely on upward communication for ideas on how things can be improved.

The level of upward communication used depends on the organisational culture.

LATERAL COMMUNICATION

Lateral communicationcommunication that takes place between any employees on the sameorganisational level

Horizontal communications are frequently needed to save time and facilitate coordination. However, mustkeep their managers informed

DIAGONAL COMMUNICATION

Diagonal communicationcommunication that cuts across both work areas and organisational levels(across different department and different organisational level)

In the interest of efficiency and speed, diagonal communication can be beneficial. And the increased use ofemail facilitates diagonal communication. However, must keep their managers informed

ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Communication networkthe variety of patterns of vertical and horizontal flows of organisational

communicationTYPES OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Chaino Communication flows according to the formal chain of command, both downward and

upward.

Wheelo Communication flowing between a clearly identifiable and strong leader and others in a

work group or team

o The leader serves as the hub through whom all communication passes All-channel

o Communication flows freely among all members of a work teamThe type of network used depends on the goals

Criteria Chain Wheel All-channel

Speed Moderate Fast Fast

Accuracy High High Moderate


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Emergence of leader Moderate High None

Member satisfaction Moderate Low High

THE GRAPEVINE

Grapevinethe informal organisational communication network

The grapevine is active in almost every organisation. The grapevine is an important part of any group ororganisation communication network and is well worth understanding. It identifies for managers thosebewildering issues that employees consider important and anxiety producing. It acts as a filter and a

feedback mechanism, picking up on the issues employees consider relevant.It is possible to analyse what is happening on the grapevine, what information is being passed, howinformation seems to flow along the grapevine, and which individuals seen to be key conduits ofinformation on the grapevine

Bt being aware of the grapevines flow and patterns, managers can stay on top of issues that concernemployees and can use the grapevine to disseminate important information.

Rumours that flow along the grapevine also can never be eliminated entirely. However, managers canminimise the negative consequences of rumours by limiting their range and impact, by communicatingopenly, fully and honestly with employees, particularly in situations in which employees may not likeproposed or actual managerial decisions or actions.

SUMMARY 6

Define the nature and function of communicationo Communication is transfer and understanding of meaning. Interpersonal communication is

communication between 2 or more people. Organisational communication is all thepatterns, networks and systems of communication within an organisation. The functions ofcommunication include controlling employee behaviour, motivating employees, providing arelease for emotional expression of feelings and fulfilment of social needs, and providinginformation

Identify the 7 components of the communication processo There is a sender who has a messageo A message is a purpose to be conveyedo Encoding in converting a message into symbolso Channel is the medium a message travels alongo Decoding is when the receiver retranslates a senders messageo Feedbacko It should also be noticed that the entire communication process is susceptible to noise

disturbances that interfere with the transmission, receipt or feedback of a message

Compare and contrast methods of interpersonal communicationo Managers can evaluate the various communication methods according to their feedback,

complexity capacity, breadth potential, confidentially, encoding ease, decoding ease, time-space constraint, cost, interpersonal warmth, formality, scanability, and time ofconsumption

Identify barriers to effective interpersonal communication, and describe how toovercome them

o The barriers to effective communication include filtering, emotions, information overload,defensiveness, language and national culture. Managers can overcome these barriers byusing feedback, simplifying language, listening actively, constraining emotions andwatching for non-verbal cues

Explain how communication can flow most effectively in organisationso Formal communication is communication that takes place within prescribed organisational

work arrangements. Informal communication is not defined by the organisations structuralhierarchy. Communication in an organisation can flow downward, upward, laterally anddiagonally.

o The 3 communication networks include the chain, the wheel, and the all-channel


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o Managers should manage the grapevine as an important information network. They canminimise the negative consequences of rumours by communicating openly, fully andhonestly with employees

CHAPTER 10 UNDERSTANDING GROUPS AND TEAMS

UNDERSTANDING GROUPS

Individuals act differently in groups compared with when they are alone. Therefore, if managers want tobecome effective in designing and managing groups they need to develop better understanding of groupbehaviour and the characteristics of effective teams

The terms groups and teams are used interchangeably when discussing organisational settings

WHAT IS AGROUP?

Group2 or more people with a common goal, but there is no psychological contract between them theoutcomes are less dependent on all the members working together and there is usually no sharedresponsibility and accountability for outcomes.

Groups can be either formal (formed by organisations) or informal (social). For work groups inorganisations are also called teams.

Examples of formal goals

Command groups: these are the basic, traditional work groups determined by formal authorityrelationships and depicted on the organisational chart. They typically include a manager and thosesubordinates who report directly to the manager

Cross-functional teams: these bring together the knowledge and skills of individuals from variouswork areas in order to come up with solutions to operational problems. Cross-functional teams alsoinclude groups whose members have been trained to do each others jobs

Self-managed teams: these are essentially independent groups that, in additional to doing theiroperating jobs, take on traditional management responsibilities such as hiring, planning andscheduling, and performance evaluations

Task forces: these are temporary groups created to accomplish a specific task. Once that task iscomplete, the group is disbanded

Why do we need teams?

Complex projects needs more than one persono Multiple areas of expertise one person does not have all the skillso Sequential taskso Time (one person would take too long to complete the project)

Teams offer a diversity of knowledge, ideas and opinionsSTAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Formingthe 1ststage of group development in which people join thegroup and then define the groups purpose, structure and leadership

It has 2 phases:o People join the groupo The task of defining the groups purpose, structure and

leadership. This phase is characterised by a great deal ofuncertainty as members test the waters to determine what types of behaviour areunacceptable

Stormingthe 2ndstage of group development, which is characterised by intragroup conflict

Members accept the existence of the group but resist the control that the group imposes onindividuality. There is conflict over who will control the group.

When this stage is complete, there should be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within thegroup and agreement on the groups direction

Normingthe 3rdstage of group development, which is characterised by close relationships andcohesiveness

There is a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie When complete, the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of

expectations/norms regarding member behaviour

Performingthe 4thstage of group development, when the group is fully functional

The group structure is in place and accepted by group members. Group members energies havemoved from getting to know and understand each other to performing that task at hand.

Last stage for permanent groupsAdjourningthe final stage of group development for temporary groups during which the groupmembers are concerned with wrapping-up activities rather them task performance

WEEK5:T5


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The group prepares to disband. High levels of task performance are no longer the groups top priority. Attention is directed towards

wrapping-up activities

It is not always following this developmental process:

A stage can outperform others Several stages may be going on simultaneously Regress to previous stages

GROUP STRUCTURE

Work groups have an internal structure that shapes members behaviour and makes it possible to explain,predict and influence a large portion of individual behaviour within the group as well as the performance ofthe group.

Internal structure:

1. ROLESo Rolebehaviour patterns expected of someone occupying a given position in a social unito In a group, individuals are expected to do certain things because of their position (role) in

the group.

o Formal roles include titles and other status symbols. Informal roles are not as clearlydefined

o These roles tend to be oriented towards either task accomplishment or maintaining groupmember satisfaction

o Task-related roleroles (behaviours) that help the group to focus on the task at hando Maintenance-related roleroles that help maintain good interpersonal relationships

within the group

o Formal and informal leaders are expected to help the group achieve its goals and tomaintain internal processes

o Self-oriented rolesroles (dysfunctional behaviours) that may hinder or even underminethe teams progress (little concern for the group or its goals and are often harmful for thegroups functioning)

Task-related roles: Maintenance-related roles: Self-oriented roles:

Clarifying Diagnosing Initiating Evaluating Opinion seeking Information

gather

Summarising

Encouraging Gate keeping (even

participation from everyone)

Expressing feelings Following Compromising Harmonising Setting standards

Attacking Blocking Dominating Withdrawing Special pleading Clowning

o A problem arises is that individuals play multiple roles, adjusting their role to the group towhich they belong at the time

o When individuals are confronted by different role expectations, he/she experiences roleconflict

2. NORMSo Normsstandards or expectations that are accepted and shared by a groups memberso How do norms develop?

We bring our norms with us from old groups to new groups New norms develop based on what happens early in a groups existence

o Although each group will have its own unique set of norms, there are common types ofnorms in most organisations that focus on effort and performance, dress and loyalty

o Factors that can determine the speed of norm formation: Individual characteristics Clarity of the norm The number of people who have already conformed to the norm


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The quality of the interpersonal relationships within the group The sense of group identification

3. CONFORMITYo As group members, we often want to be considered one of the group and to avoid being

visibly different. We find it more pleasant to be in agreement and harmony, to be a positive

part of the group, than to be disruptive, even if disruptive may be necessary to improvethe effectiveness of the groups decisions

o Groupthinka form of conformity in which group members feel extensive pressure toalign their opinions with other opinions

o The pressure to make a decision that maintains the groups cohesiveness can result ingroupthink

o Groupthink does not appear in all groups.o Certain group characteristics encourage group think:

Strong group identity Norm that discourages debate and open discussion Critical thinking is not encouraged or rewarded Members think their group can do no wrong Members apply pressure to those who do not support the group Members often believe they have reached a true consensus Members want to reinforce the leaders beliefs

o Solutions: Encourage critical, independent thinking Leader should encourage disagreement and discussion Be aware that status differences can influence decision making Bring in outsiders with differing opinions and to evaluate the decision making To assign someone to perform the role of devils advocate If the group is large enough, split the group into smaller groups to work on

problem solutions

4. GROUP SIZEo Research has found that small groups are faster at completing tasks than larger ones.

However, large groups consistently get better results than smaller ones.

o Social loafingthe tendency for individuals to expend less effort when workingcollectively than when working individually

Tempted to become free-rider5. GROUP COHESIVENESS

o Group cohesivenessthe degree to which group members are attracted to one anotherand share the groups goals

o High cohesiveness and high alignment of group and organisational goals = strong increasein productivity

o High cohesiveness and low alignment of group and organisational goals = decrease inproductivity

o Low cohesiveness and high alignment of group and organisational goals = moderateincrease in productivityo Low cohesiveness and low alignment of group and organisational goals = no significant

effect on productivity

6. LEADERSHIPGROUP PROCESS

GROUP DECISION MAKING

Many organisational decisions are made by groups. Studies show that managers may spend up to 30 hoursa week in group meetings. A large portion of that time is spent formulating problems, developing solutionsand determining how to implement to solutions

Advantages:

Groups provide more complete information and knowledgeo A group brings a diversity of experience and perspectives to the decision process that an

individual cannot

Groups generate more diverse alternatives


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o Because groups have a greater amount and diversity of information, they can identify morealternatives than an individual can. This advantage is particularly evident when groupmembers represent different areas of expertise

Groups increase acceptance of a solutiono Many decisions fail after the final choice has been made, because people do not accept the

solution. Group members are reluctant to fight or undermine a decision they have helpeddevelop

Group increase legitimacyo The group decision-making process is consistent with democratic ideals, and decisions

made by groups may be perceived as more legitimate than decisions made unilaterally byone person

Disadvantages:

Groups are time-consumingo Putting a group together takes time, as does any decision making within the group. The

result is that groups almost take more time to reach a solution than it would take anindividual

Groups risk minority dominationo Members of a group are never perfectly equal. They may differ in organisational rank,

experience, knowledge about the problem, influence with other members, verbal skills, and

assertiveness. This inequality creates the opportunity for one or more to dominate others,which have some influence on the final decision

There are pressure to conformo There are pressures to conform in groups. This groupthink undermines critical thinking in

the group and eventually harms the quality of the final decisions

There is ambiguous responsibilityo Group members share responsibility, however, responsibilities are weaken in groups

The effectiveness of group decisions making is also influenced by the size of the group, although a largergroup provides greater opportunities for diverse representation, it also requires more coordination andmore time for members to contribute their ideas

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflictperceived incompatible differences that result in interference or oppositionDifferent views of conflict:

Traditional view of conflictthe view that all conflict is bad and must be avoided Human relations view of conflictthe view that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in

any group

Interactionist view of conflictthe view that some conflict is necessary for a group to performeffectively

o Functional conflictsconflicts that support a groups goals and improve its performanceo Dysfunctional conflictsconflicts that prevent a group form achieving its goalso 3 types of conflicts:

Task conflictconflict over content and goals of the work Relationship conflictconflict based on interpersonal relationships Process conflictconflict over how work gets done

o Studies demostrate that relationship conflict are almost always dysfunctional because theinterpersonal hostilities increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding

o However, low levels of process conflict and low to moderate levels of task conflict arefunctional


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TURNING GROUPS INTO EFFECTIVE TEAMS

Why use teams?

Creates esprit de crops Increases performance Increases flexibility Takes advantage of workforce diversity Allows managers to do more strategic management

WHAT IS ATEAM?

Teamis 2 or more people psychologically contracted together to achieve a common goal in which allindividuals involved share at least some level of responsibility and accountability for the outcome

In a work team, the combined individual efforts of team members result in a level of performance that isgreater than the sum of those individual inputs

Team work + task work = Team effectiveness

Team work planning:

Team contracts are good because they:

Prompt team members to consider the team mission and objectives

Help identify important stakeholders for successful team functioning Identify team member strengths, weakness and working styles

Team contract:

Outline roles and responsibilities for each member Specify how the team will function, and how the task will be accomplished Determine her performance will be evaluated Can facilitate later team processes, as there are guidelines in place Can help minimise dysfunctional interpersonal processes

Task work:

To improve task work, the team can develop a performance strategy

A performance strategy is a deliberate set of plans for what it is the team intends to do, and shouldinclude goals and tactics, as well as alternative courses of action

A high quality performance strategy is proactive strategy planning for future events A low quality performance strategy is a reactive strategy responding to events, not planning for

them

The strength of forward planning the strategy is that the team has a template to refer to, ratherthan creating on ad-hoc

Groups vs. teams

Groups Teams

1. One leader clearly in charge2. Accountable only to self3. Purpose is same as broader organisational

purpose

4. Work is done individually5. Meetings characterised be efficiency; not

1. Leadership role is shared2. Accountable to self and team3. Team creates specific purpose4. Work is done collectively5. Meetings characterised by open-ended

discussion and collaborative problem solving


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collaboration or open-ended discussion

6. Performance is measured indirectlyaccording to its influence on others

7. Work is decided upon by group leader anddelegated to individual group members

6. Performance is measured directly byevaluating collective work output

7. Work is decided upon and done together8. Can be quickly assembled, deployed,

refocused and disbanded

TYPES OF TEAM

PROBLEM-SOLVING TEAMSo Problem-solving teama team from the same department or functional area that is

involved in efforts to improve work activities or to solve specific problems

o Members share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods can beimproved. However, these teams are rarely given the authority to implement any of theirsuggested actions

SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMSo Self-managed work teamsa type of work team that operates without a manager and

is responsible for a complete work process or segment

o The self-managed team is responsible for getting the work done and for managingthemselves. This usually includes planning and scheduling of work, assigning tasks to

members, collective control over the pace of work, making operating decisions and takingaction on problems

CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAMSo Cross-functional teama work team composed of individuals from various specialities

VIRTUAL TEAMSo Virtual teamsa type of work team that uses technology to link physically dispersed

members in order to achieve a common goal

Advantages: Disadvantages:

Saves time (working can continue 24/7) Saves on travel expenses May reduce interpersonal difficulties

De-personalisedrelationships

Poor communicationo Successful virtual teams:

Engage in social interaction Have clearly defined roles Have positive attitudes and commitment to team goals

CREATING EFFECTIVE TEAMS

Characteristics of effective team:

CLEAR GOALS

High-performance teams have a clear understanding of the goals to be achieved. Members are committedto the teams goals, know what they are expected to accomplish, and understand how they will worktogether to achieve these goals

RELEVANT SKILLS

Effective teams are composed of competent individuals who have the necessary technical and interpersonalskills to achieve the desired goals while working well together. Not everyone who is technically competenthas the interpersonal skills to work well as a team member

MUTUAL TRUST

Effective teams are characterised by high mutual trust among members. I.e. members believe in eachothers ability, character and integrity. However, trust is fragile. It takes a long time to build and can beeasily destroyed. Maintaining trust requires careful attention be managers. The climate for trust within agroup tends to be strongly influenced by the organisations culture and the actions of management.Organisations that value openness, honesty and collaborative processes, and encourage employeeinvolvement and autonomy, are more likely to create trusting cultures

UNIFIED COMMITMENT

Unified commitment is characterised be dedication to the teams goals and a willingness to expend

extraordinary amounts of energy to achieve them. Members of an effective team exhibit intense loyaltyand dedication to the team and are willing to do whatever it takes to help their team succeed

GOOD COMMUNICATION


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Members convey messages, verbally and non-verbally, among each other in ways that are readily andclearly understood. Good communication is characterised by a healthy dose of feedback from teammembers and managers. Feedback helps to guide team members and to correct misunderstandings.Members on high-performing teams are able to quickly and efficiently share ideas and feelings

NEGOTIATING SKILLS

When jobs are designed around individuals, their job description, the organisations rules and procedures,and other types of formalised documentation clarify employee roles. Effective teams, tend to be flexibleand are continually making adjustments as to who does what. This flexibility requires team members to

possess negotiating skills. Since problems and relationships are regularly changing in teams, membersneed to be able to confront and reconcile differences

APPROPRIATE LEADERSHIP

Leaders can motivate a team to follow them through the most difficult situations, by clarifying,demonstrating that change is possible by overcoming inertia, increasing the self-confidence of teammembers, and helping members to more fully realise their potential. They help to guide and support theteam, but do not control it

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SUPPORT

Internally, the team should have a sound infrastructure, which means having proper training, a clear andreasonable measurement system that team members can use to evaluate their overall performance, anincentive program that recognises and rewards team activities, and a supportive human resource system.The right infrastructure should support members and reinforce behaviours that lead to high levels ofperformance. Externally, managers should provide the team with the resources needed to get the job done

MANAGING TEAMS

PLANNING

Goal determination is an important part of the planning process. It is important that team membersunderstand and accept the teams goals. Every team member needs to know what the goals are. An easyway to check team members understanding of the goals is to have each person write down the goals andthen look at their statements. If there are misconceptions about the teams goals, a team member can be

called to clear them up

ORGANISING

Organising tasks in managing a team include clarifying authority and structural issues. If the team is aself-managed team, it has already been empowered with the authority to make certain decisions andperform specific work activities. If the organisational culture is supportive of employee involvement andautonomy, then its work teams are likely to have authority over that they do and how they do it.

LEADING

Important issues in leading that a team must address include what role the leader will play, how conflictwill be handled and what communication processes will be used. The team leader plays an important rolein directing the efforts of the team.

CONTROLLING

Performance criteria need to be modified to incorporate teamwork behaviours in employee evaluations.Managers also need to look at how teams are rewarded for their efforts and performance levels. Asorganisations use teams more frequently, we are seeing an increased use of group incentive plans

SUMMARY 10

Define the term group, and describe the stages of group developmento A group is 2 or more interacting individuals who come together to achieve specific goals.

Formal groups are work groups that are defined by the organisations structure and havedesignated work assignments and specific tasks directed at accomplishing organisationalgoals. Informal groups are social groups

o Stages: forming, storming, Norming, performing, and adjourning Discuss the main components that determine group performance and satisfaction

o The main components that determine group performance and satisfaction include externalconditions, group member resources, group structure, group processes and group tasks.

o External conditions such as availability of resources and organisational goals affect workgroups. Group member resources (knowledge, ability, skills, personality traits) caninfluence what members can do and how effectively they will perform in a group. Grouproles generally involve getting the work done or keeping group members happy. Groupnorms are powerful influences on a persons performance and dictate things like workoutput levels, absenteeism, and promptness. Pressures to conform can heavily influence a

persons judgment and attitudes. If carried to extremes, groupthink can be a problem.Status systems can be a significant motivator with individual behavioural consequences,esp. if there is incongruence in it. What size group is effective and efficient depends on thetask the group is supposed to accomplish. Cohesiveness is related to a groups


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WEE

K7:T7

productivity. Group decision making and conflict management are important groupprocesses that role a role in performance and satisfaction.

Differentiate between work groups and teams, and describe 4 common types of teamso Work groups interact primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each

member do his/her job more efficiently and effectively. There is no need or opportunity forwork groups to engage in collective work that requires joint effort. On the other hand, workteams are groups whose members work intensively on a specific, common goal using theirpositive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills.

o A problem-solving team is one that is focused on improving work activities or solvingspecific problems. A self-managed work team is responsible for a complete work process orsegment and manages itself. A cross-functional team is composed of individuals fromvarious specialities. A virtual team uses technology to link physically dispersed members inorder to achieve a common goal

Identify the characteristics of an effective teamo Clear goals, mutual trust, unified commitment, good communication, negotiating skills,

appropriate leadership, and internal and external support

CHAPTER 12 POWER AND POLITICS

A definition of power

Powera capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B so that B acts in accordance with As wishes

Power is the capacity to produce intended and foreseen effects on others. The probability that a person willact as another person wishes. The greater Bs dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B(general dependency postulate). Power is intended influence

What is influence?

The process of altering the attitudes and behaviours of others, using your sources of power The capacity to be a compelling force on or produce effects on the actions, behaviour, or opinions

of others

DependencyBs relationships toA when A possesses something that B requires

Contrasting leadership and power

Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence. Whereas leadership requires somecongruence between the goals of the leader and those being led

Leadership focuses on the downward influence on followers. It minimises the important of lateral andupward influence patterns. Power does not.

Leadership research emphasises style. It seeks answers to questions, whereas the research on powerfocuses on tactics for gaining compliance. It goes beyond the individual as the exerciser of power, becausegroups as well as individuals can use power to control other individuals or groups

Bases of power

Formal power

Formal powerbased on an individuals position in an organisation.

Coercive power

Coercive powera power base that is dependent on fear of the negative results form failing to comply

It rests on the application of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, frustration through therestriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs.

At the organisational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend or demote B, assumingthat B values his/her job. If A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a mannerthat B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B. coercive power can also come fromwithholding key information. People in an organisation who have data or knowledge that others need canmake those others dependent on them

Reward power

Reward powercompliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view asvaluable

These rewards can be either financial or non-financial

Legitimate power

Legitimate powerthe power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy ofan organisation


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It represents the formal authority to control and use organisational resources based on structural positionin the organisation

Resources power

Resources powerwhen you have control over valued resources, withholding or bestowing theseresources can be used as forms of either punishment or reward

Personal power

Personal powerways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions

Expert power

Expert powerinfluence based on special skills or knowledge

As jobs become more specialised, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals

Referent power

Referent powerinfluence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits

Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person.

Charismathe gift of power often associated with leadership (connected to appearance, emotions andstatus)

Network powerrelated to who you know and how you know them. Often times the informal powerstructures are more important than the formal structures

Compared to other forms of power, persuasion can have give and take, and resemble a communicationinteraction more than a wielding of power

Persuasion powerones ability to persuade is often linked to their credibility and integrity

Integritysoundness of moral character; an honest person Credibilitythe objectively determined truthfulness, following through, and accuracy of a person The amount of credibility you have is determined by how much belief, confidence and faith other

people have in you

A person with high credibility is consistently both honest and accurate in his/her communications.People with high credibility are perceived to have more power

Which bases of power are most effective?

Research suggests pretty clearly that the personal sources of power are the most effective. Expert andreferent power are positively related to employees satisfaction with supervision, their organisational

commitment and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seen to be unrelated to theseoutcomes. And coercive power is negatively related to employee satisfaction and commitment

CONFLICTS

Conflicta process in which one party perceives that its interest are being opposed or negativelyaffected by another (McShane and Travaglione, 2003)

These interests can be objective or/and subjective. Conflict may be over distinct issues (substantive) orover feelings (emotional). The conflict may not be obvious to all those involved or to those around them.Only one of the persons involved may feel this disagreement or conflict

Types of conflicts:

Task conflictconflict over content and goals of the work (share knowledge) Relationship conflictconflict based on interpersonal relationships (compromise) Process conflictconflict over how work gets done (transparent process)


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Why does conflict occur?

Individual differences:o Differences in personality and temperamento Gender, generational and cultural differenceso Lack of effective communication skillso Biased interpretations/perceptions or different ways of seeing things

Individual issues:o Existing psychological conditionso Personal stresses outside work impacting at work

Organisational situations:o Employees kept in the darko Workplace culture that allows bullying, blame or encourages rivalryo Competition for advancemento Stressful/unfair performance appraisalso Unclear grievance processes or uneven application of themo A scarcity of resources, such as money, people, supplier or time

Organisational issues/structureso Cant choose who you work witho Gap between policy, procedures and practiceo There exists a weak system for conflict resolution


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Managing Organisation

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