Download - Lecture 19, Blood
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Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Fundamentals of
Anatomy & PhysiologySIXTH EDITION
Frederic H
. MartiniLecture 19, Blood
Lecturer: Dr. Ebadi
Room P313
Phone: (718) 260-5285
E-Mail: [email protected]
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Learning Objectives
• List the components of the cardiovascular system and explain the major functions of this system.
• Describe the important components and major functions of the blood
• List the characteristics and functions of red blood cells.
• Describe the structure of hemoglobin and indicate its functions.
• Discuss red blood cell production and maturation.
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Learning Objectives
• Explain the importance of blood typing and the basis for ABO and Rh incompatibilities.
• Categorize the various white blood cells on the basis of structure and function.
• Describe the structure, function and production of platelets.
• Describe the reaction sequences responsible for blood clotting.
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• Provides a mechanism for rapid transport of nutrients, waste products, respiratory gases and cells
The cardiovascular system
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• Fluid connective tissue
• Functions include
• Transporting dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, and metabolic wastes
• Regulating pH and ion composition of interstitial fluids
• Restricting fluid loss at injury sites
• Defending the body against toxins and pathogens
• Regulating body temperature by absorbing and redistributing heat
Functions and Composition of Blood
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Blood Composition
Blood
Plasma 46-63% Formed Elements 37-54%
Plasma Protein 7% Water 92% Other Solutes 1% Platelets RBC 99.9% WBC
Albumin
Fibrinogen
Globulin
Regulatory Proteins
Eg. Electrolytes
Monocytes
Basophils
Eosinophils
Neatrophils
Lymphocytes
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The composition of blood
• Plasma and formed elements comprise whole blood.
• Plasma elements include blood cells:
• Red blood cells (RBC)
• White blood cells (WBC)
• Platelets
• Can fractionate whole blood for analytical or clinical purposes
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The Composition of Whole Blood
Fresh whole blood for testing in a lab is usually collected from a superficial vein.
When checking the efficiency of gas exchange, it may be necessary to draw a blood sample from an artery
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The Composition of Whole Blood
The chief difference between plasma and interstitial fluid involves the concentration of dissolved oxygen and proteins.
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The Composition of Whole Blood
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• Process of blood cell formation
• Hemocytoblasts are circulating stem cells that divide to form all types of blood cells
• Whole blood from anywhere in the body has roughly the same temperature (38ºC), pH (7.4) and viscosity.
• Bright red color if taken from artery
• Dull red color if taken from vein
Hemopoiesis
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• Accounts for 46-63% of blood volume
• 92% of plasma is water
• Higher concentration of dissolved oxygen and dissolved proteins than interstitial fluid
Plasma
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• more than 90% are synthesized in the liver
• Albumins are the most abundant plasma proteins
• 60% of plasma proteins
• Responsible for viscosity and osmotic pressure of blood
Plasma proteins
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• Globulins
• ~35% of plasma proteins
• Include immunoglobins which attack foreign proteins and pathogens
• Include transport globulins which bind ions, hormones and other compounds
• Fibrinogen
• Converted to fibrin during clotting
• Are necessary for blood clotting
• Removal of fibrinogen leaves serum
Additional Plasma Proteins
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• Erythrocytes (RBC) account for slightly less than half the blood volume, and 99.9% of the formed elements.
• Hematocrit measures the percentage of whole blood occupied by formed elements
• Commonly referred to as the volume of packed red cells
Red Blood Cells
Abundance of RBCs
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• Biconcave disc, providing a large surface to volume ration
• Shape allows RBCs to stack, bend and flex
• RBCs lack organelles
• Typically degenerate in about 120 days.
Structure of RBCs
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The Anatomy of Red Blood Cells
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• Molecules of hemoglobin account for 95% of the proteins in RBCs
• Hemoglobin is a globular protein, formed from two pairs of polypeptide subunits
• Each subunit contains a molecule of heme which reversibly binds an oxygen molecule
• Damaged or dead RBCs are recycled by phagocytes
Hemoglobin
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The Structure of Hemoglobin
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“Sickling” in Red Blood Cells
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• Replaced at a rate of approximately 3 million new blood cells entering the circulation per second.
• Replaced before they hemolyze
• Components of hemoglobin individually recycled
• Heme stripped of iron and converted to biliverdin, then bilirubin
• Iron is recycled by being stored in phagocytes, or transported throughout the blood stream bound to transferrin
RBC life span and circulation
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Red Blood Cell Turnover
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• Erythropoeisis = the formation of new red blood cells
• Occurs in red bone marrow
• Process speeds up with in the presence of EPO (Erythropoeisis stimulating hormone)
• RBCs pass through reticulocyte and erythroblast stages
RBC Production
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Stages of RBC Maturation
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• Determined by the presence or absence of surface antigens (agglutinogens)
• Antigens A, B and Rh (D)
• Antibodies in the plasma (agglutinins)
• Cross-reactions occur when antigens meet antibodies
Blood types
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Blood Typing and Cross-Reactions
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Blood Type Testing
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Rh Factors and Pregnancy
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• Have nuclei and other organelles
• Defend the body against pathogens
• Remove toxins, wastes, and abnormal or damaged cells
• Are capable of amoeboid movement (margination) and positive chemotaxis
• Some are capable of phagocytosis
The White Blood Cells
Leukocytes
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Granular and agranular
• Granular leukocytes
• Neutrophils – 50 to 70 % total WBC population
• Eosinophils – phagocytes attracted to foreign compounds that have reacted with antibodies
• Basophils – migrate to damaged tissue and release histamine and heparin
Types of WBC
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• Agranular leukocytes
• Agranular leukocytes are formed inred bone marrow.
• Agranular leukocytes include:
• Monocytes - become macrophage
• Lymphocytes – includes T cells, B cells, and NK cells
Types of WBC
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White Blood Cells
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• Indicates a number of disorders
• Leukemia = inordinate number of leukocytes
Differential count
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• Granulocytes and monocytes are produced by bone marrow stem cells
• Divide to create progenitor cells
• Stem cells may originate in bone marrow and migrate to peripheral tissues
• Several colony stimulating factors are involved in regulation and control of production
WBC Production
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Figure 19.12
The Origins and Differentiation of Formed Elements
Animation: The origins and differentiation of blood cells (see tutorial)
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• Flattened discs
• Circulate for 9-12 days before being removed by phagocytes
Platelets
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• Transporting chemicals important to clotting
• Forming temporary patch in walls of damaged blood vessels
• Contracting after a clot has formed
Platelet functions
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• Megakaryocytes release platelets into circulating blood
• Rate of platelet formation is stimulated by thrombopoietin, thrombocyte-stimulating factor, interleukin-6, and Multi-CSF
Platelet production (thrombocytopoiesis)
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Hemostasis
• Prevents the loss of blood through vessel walls
• Three phases –
• Vascular phase
• Platelet phase
• Coagulation phase
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Hemostasis
• Vascular phase
• Local blood vessel constriction (vascular spasm)
• Platelet phase
• Platelets are activated, aggregate at the site, adhere to the damaged surfaces
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The Vascular and Platelet Phases of Hemostasis
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Coagulation phase
• Factors released by platelets and endothelial cells interact with clotting factors to form a clot
• Extrinsic pathway
• Intrinsic pathway
• Common pathway
• Suspended fibrinogen is converted to large insoluble fibrin fibers
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The Coagulation Phase of Hemostasis
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The Coagulation Phase of Hemostasis
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Clot retraction
• Final phase of healing
• Platelets contract and pull the edges of the vessel together
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Fibrinolysis
• Clot gradually dissolves through action of plasmin
• Activated form of plasminogen
• Clotting can be prevented through the use of drugs that depress the clotting response or dissolve existing clots
• Anticoagulants include heparin, coumadin, aspirin, dicumarol, t- PA, streptokinase, and urokinase
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You should now be familiar with:
• The components of the cardiovascular system and its major functions.
• The important components and major functions of the blood.
• The characteristics and functions of red blood cells.
• The structure of hemoglobin and its functions.
• Red blood cell production and maturation.
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You should now be familiar with:
• The importance of blood typing and the basis for ABO and Rh incompatibilities.
• The various white blood cells.
• The structure, function and production of platelets.
• The reaction sequences responsible for blood clotting.