![Page 1: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Kristin Print RN, BSNPCCNP, MSN Student
University of Pennsylvania
![Page 2: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Objectives
Describe pathophysiologic process of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)Identify diagnostic criteria for DKAExplain two-bag system of intravenous rehydrationDiscuss complications related to treatment methods of DKA
![Page 3: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Diabetes Review: IDDM vs. NIDDM
Type I Diabetes: Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM)
Severe insulinopenia secondary to β cell injury requiring exogenous insulin to prevent ketosisPredominantly occurs during childhoodPossible genetic predisposition and auto-immune mediated
![Page 4: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Diabetes Review:IDDM vs. NIDDM
Type II Diabetes: Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM)
Resistant to own insulin secretion secondary to decreased cellular receptor sensitivityRarely develop ketosisPredominately occurs after age 40 and in the obese populationNo associated genetic predisposition
![Page 5: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
What is DKA?
A medical emergency resulting from metabolic decompensation in patients with Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM)
![Page 6: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Diabetic KetoacidosisD Diabetic Hyperglycemia
Blood glucose > 300mg/dL
K Keto Ketonemia Blood ketones > 3mmol/ LKetonuria
A Acidosis pH<7.3 or HCO3<15meq/dL
![Page 7: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Epidemiology12-15 new cases of IDDM per 100,000 children less than age 18 per year1 in 400 children less than age 18 have IDDMIDDM is the most common endocrine-metabolic disorder in the pediatric population
Menon, R.K. & Sperling, M.A.(1998) Diabetic Ketoacidosis. In Fuhrman, B.P. & Zimmerman, J.J., Pediatric Critical Care (pp.844-852). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
![Page 8: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Etiology
NoncomplianceAcute illness or infectionSevere stress
![Page 9: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Pathophysiology
DKA triggersInsulin deficiencyExcess of glucagonExcess of stress hormones
EpinephrineNorepinephrineCortisolGrowth hormones
![Page 10: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Insulin Stimulates anabolic processes
Glucose utilization and storage of the energy as glucose, protein, and fat
Inhibits catabolic processesGlycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, proteolysis, lipolysis, ketogenesis
Insulin deficiency:Decreases glucose utilization by insulin-sensitive tissuesPromotes lipolysis in adipose tissueEnhances protein breakdown in muscles
![Page 11: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Glucagon
Increases glycogenolysisIncreases gluconeogenesisIncreases ketogenesis
![Page 12: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Stress HormonesEpinephrine and Norepinephrine
Activates glycogenolysis, glyconeogenesis, and lipolysisInhibits insulin release by pancreas
CortisolStimulates gluconeogenesisDecreases glucose utilization by muscleLeads to increased serum glucose concentration
Growth HormoneIncreases lipolysisImpairs insulin’s action on muscle
![Page 13: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
KetogenesisInsufficient insulin available to facilitate movement of glucose into cells for use in cellular metabolismLipids become primary energy source as they break down into free fatty acids and acetoacidic acidFree fatty acids generate the ketone bodies:β-hydroxybutyric acid, acetoacidic acid, and acetone
![Page 14: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Metabolic acidosis
Develops from metabolism of fats and accumulation of their by-products including ketones
![Page 15: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Insulin DeficiencyCortisol
Glucagon, Cortisol, Catecholamines ↑ Protein breakdown
↑ Amino Acids↑ Gluconeogenesis
Lipolysis
↑ Free Fatty Acids
↑ Fatty acid oxidation ↑ Serum Lipids
Ketone formation
Ketoacidosis
↑ Triglycerides
& VLDL
↓ Glucose utilization
Hyperglycemia
Glycosuria/ Osmotic diuresis
Loss of H2O, Na+, K+, PO4-
Dehydration & Hypovolemia
Circulatory collapse/ Shock
Coma
Death
![Page 16: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Diagnosis
Diabetic KetoacidosisHyperglycemiaKetonemiaAcidosisGlucosuriaKetonuria
![Page 17: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Differential Diagnosis
Adrenocortical dysfunctionHigh-dose steroidsPheochromocytomaPancreatitisCystic fibrosisExogenous catecholamines
![Page 18: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Differential DiagnosisStress responseDiabetes InsipidusAlcoholic ketoacidosisStarvationInborn errors of metabolism
Craig,J. (1998). Endocrine system: Diabetes mellitus. In Slota, M.C. Core Curriculum for Pediatric Critical Care Nursing. (pp408-413) Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company.
![Page 19: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Clinical ManifestationsHistory:
IDDMPrecipitating factors
Acute illness or infectionStressTraumaNoncompliance
Excessive thirst, drinking, and urinationWeight loss
![Page 20: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Clinical Manifestations
Physical Examination:PolyuriaPolydipsiaPolyphagiaKussmaul respirationMental status changes/ WeaknessDehydration
![Page 21: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Clinical Manifestations
Physical Examination:Nausea/ VomitingAcute abdominal painCardiac arrhythmiaTachycardiaHypotension/ HypovolemiaPoor perfusion, shock
![Page 22: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Clinical ManifestationsLaboratory/Test results:
Hyperglycemia: serum glucose>300 mg/dLSerum pH<7.3Serum bicarbonate<15 mmol/LHyperosmolality> 300 mOsm/kg
Serum Osm = 2Na + BUN + Glucose2.8 18
Electrolyte imbalances: Sodium/PotassiumLevels vary from high to low
![Page 23: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Sodium & PotassiumSodium:
Falsely high serum Na due to hemoconcentrationTotal body Na depletion 2o to osmotic diuresisCorrection: serum sodium add 1.6 mEq/L per each 100 mg/dL serum glucose over 100 mg/dL
Potassium:Estimated total K deficit at 5 mmol/kgMay be falsely normal in presence of acidosis
Potassium moves from intracellular to extracellular space
![Page 24: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Clinical ManifestationsLaboratory/Test results:
GlucosuriaKetonuriaElevated Glycosylated hemoglobin (Hgb A1c) (indicates poor glucose control over past 2-3 months)Elevated white blood cell count with shift to leftCT scan may be diagnostic of cerebral edema
![Page 25: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Lab studies for new onset DKAInsulin level
Must be drawn prior to first insulin dose!!
HgA1C
TPO antibodyAntithyroglobulin antibodyTotal T4
Total T3
TSH
Antibodies:ICA 512Anti GAD-65InsulinEndomysial (tissue transglutaminase)Adrenal
BMP, Ca, Mg, PO4
VBG
![Page 26: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
TreatmentGoals:
Correction of metabolic imbalancesHyperglycemiaKetonemiaAcidosis
Treatment of underlying/precipitating factorsPrevention and early identification of precipitating factorsPrevention of recurrence
![Page 27: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
TreatmentCorrection of metabolic imbalances
Estimate degree of dehydrationInitially at least 10% dehydrated10 cc/kg bolus NSS, then reassess blood pressure
Additional 10cc/kg bolus’ until blood pressure stabilizes
Replace estimated deficit plus ongoing losses over 36-48 hours
First ½ of replacement over initial 18 hoursconsider replacing excessive urine output (> total input)
Dextrose-stick for serum glucose level q 1hSerum electrolytes q 2h initially
![Page 28: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Treatment: IV fluids
IV rehydrationReplenishes intravascular volumeDecreases serum concentrations of conterregulatory hormonesImproves insulin sensitivity of the tissues
![Page 29: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Treatment: IV fluidsGuidelines:
Serum glucose levels should drop by 50-150 mg/dL/hrWhen serum glucose levels = 250mg/dL: add 5% dextrose to IV fluidsWhen serum glucose levels = 150 mg/dl: add 10% dextrose to IV fluids
Craig,J. (1998). Endocrine system: Diabetes mellitus. In Slota, M.C. Core Curriculum for Pediatric Critical Care Nursing. (pp408-413) Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company.
![Page 30: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Treatment: Two Bag SystemThe two bag system
Bag #1: 0.9 % NaCl + 20 mEq KCL + 20mEq KPO4/literBag #2: 10% Dextrose + 0.9% NaCl + 20mEq KCl + 20mEq KPO4/liter
Do not add phosphorous if serum calcium < 7.5 as phosphorous often decreases calcium levels.
Connect both bags together to run into the same IV line Titrate rates of each bag to desired dextrose concentration
Grimberg, A, et al. (1999) The “two bag system” for variable intravenous dextrose and fluid administration: Benefits in diabetic ketoacidosis management. Journal of Pediatrics 134 (3): 376-378.
![Page 31: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Two Bag System
Grimberg, A, et al. (1999) The “two bag system” for variable intravenous dextrose and fluid administration: Benefits in diabetic ketoacidosis management. Journal of Pediatrics134 (3): 376-378.
![Page 32: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Treatment: Two Bag System
Benefits: More precise control of total fluid, electrolyte, and dextroseTailor the IV fluids to meet the patient’s individual needsDecreased time to institute ordered changes in fluid therapy from >30 minutes to <10 minutes
![Page 33: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Treatment: Two Bag System
Benefits:Safer infusions
Less IV fluid bag changes and less chances for errors than the traditional single bag system
Cost-effectiveTwo bag system costs $500 less per DKA admission than one bag systemEstimated savings of about $75,000 per year
![Page 34: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Treatment: InsulinInsulin infusion
Crucial in restoring acid-base balance and eliminating ketoacidosisStandard rate .05-0.1U/kg/hrRate of insulin remains constant while dextrose concentration titrated to achieve desired serum glucose levelsIdeal glucose levels 200-300 mg/dL until NaHCO3 > 15 meq/L
![Page 35: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Treatment: InsulinGuidelines for switching to subcutaneous injections of insulin:
Serum glucose levels < 300mg/dLResolved acidosis HCO3 >16-18Stable cardiopulmonary statusTolerating solid PO intakeRecommendations: .5 U/kg SQ of which 1/3 Humalog and 2/3 intermediate acting (Lente or NPH)
Give first dose prior to a mealGive Humalog insulin SC and immediately discontinue infusion.
![Page 36: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Treatment: Bicarbonate Controversial treatment for acidosisNo evidence that bicarbonate facilitates metabolic recoveryDetrimental effects:
Paradoxical CNS acidosisWorsening hypokalemiaProlongation of intracellular acidosis secondary to increased CO2 production
Not recommended for use in treating pediatric DKA
![Page 37: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Bicarbonate
Glaser et al. NEJM 2001Evaluated associations between cerebral edema and demographic factors, therapeutic interventions, and changes in biochemical values during treatmentOf the therapeutic variables, only treatment with bicarbonate was associated with cerebral edema P=0.008
![Page 38: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Treatment
Treatment of underlying/precipitating factors
Address issues related to precipitating disease process such as gastroenteritis or pancreatitisAddress issues related to stressors in child’s life that may have precipitated DKA event
![Page 39: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
TreatmentPrevention and early identification of precipitating factors
Changes in mental status should improve, if decompensation in neurologic status, suspect cerebral edema
Neurological checks q 1 hour
Respiratory status should improve with resolution of Kussmaul breathing, monitor patient for respiratory failure
Have intubation equipment and medications in room
![Page 40: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
TreatmentPrevention of recurrence
Once DKA crisis resolved, counsel child and family on prevention strategiesInform families and child of acute and chronic complications associated with DKAGive families information on support groups and resources for children with diabetes
Involve all necessary services including endocrinology, child life, and social work
![Page 41: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
ComplicationsAcute
HypoglycemiaPersistent acidosisLactic acidosisHypokalemiaCerebral edemaFluid overload and CHFAspiration secondary to decreased LOC
![Page 42: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Complications
ChronicPoor growthInsulin resistanceHypertrophy and lipoatrophy of injection sitesLimited joint mobilityVaginitis and candidiasis
![Page 43: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Long Term Complications
Complications associated with poorly controlled diabetes:
Macrovascular/ Microvascular diseaseRetinopathyNephropathyNeuropathy
![Page 44: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Cerebral Edema: EtiologyUnknownPossibly multifactoral
Rapid correction of hyperglycemia or acidosisRapid decrease in serum sodium levelOverly aggressive fluid managementAdministration of bicarbonateElevated endogenous vasopressin levels
![Page 45: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Time between initiation of therapy and neurologic deterioration in children with DKA and cerebral edema. Note majority of neurological changes occurred between 3 and 6 hours. This time period is typically when severe acidosis is partially corrected,blood glucose level is falling, adequate circulation is restored, and the patient appears to be recovering well.
Krane, EJ et al. Subclinical brain swelling in children during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. N Engl J Med 1985;312:1147-51Glaser et al. Risk factors for cerebral edema in children with diabetic ketoacidosis. N Engl J Med 2001;344:264-9
![Page 46: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Cerebral Edema: Signs/Symptoms
Decrease in GCSDecrease sensationsSudden/severe headacheIncontinenceVomitingCombativenessDisorientationAgitationOpthalmoplegia
Pupillary changesPapilledemaPosturing; seizuresChange in vital signs
HypothermiaHypotensionHypertensionTachycardiaBradycardiaGasping respirationsApneaArrhythmia
![Page 47: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Changes in intercaudate diameter of the lateral ventricles. First CT done as soon as possible after glucose level<250 mg/dL. Second CT done after resolution of DKA episode just prior to discharge. All initial scans showed narrowing of lateral ventricles.
Krane, EJ et al. Subclinical brain swelling in children during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. N Engl J Med 1985: 312: 1147-51
![Page 48: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Changes in diameter of the third ventricle. First CT done as soon as possible after glucose level<250 mg/dL. Second CT done after resolution of DKA episode just prior to discharge. All initial scans showed narrowing of third ventricle.
Krane, EJ et al. Subclinical brain swelling in children during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. N Engl J Med 1985: 312: 1147-51
![Page 49: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Cerebral Edema: Diagnostic Studies/Treatment
Mannitol: 1g/kg over 15 minutesRepeat as needed
CT ScanICP monitorIntubationHyperventilation
![Page 50: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
WebsitesAmerican Diabetes Association
http://www.diabetes.orgJuvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International
http://www.jdfcure.org/National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases
http://www.niddk.nih.gov/International Diabetes Federation
http://www.idf.orgChildren with Diabetes
http://www.childrenwithdiabetes.com
![Page 51: Kristin Print RN, BSN PCCNP, MSN Student University of Pennsylvania](https://reader030.vdocuments.mx/reader030/viewer/2022020704/61fb56fc2e268c58cd5d0250/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
ResourcesBarnard, J.A. & Hazinski, M.F.(1992) Pediatric gastrointestinal disorders:
Diabetic ketoacidosis. In Hazinski, M.F.Nursing Care of the Critically Ill Child. (pp 786-790) St. Loius, MO: Mosby Year Book
Craig, J. (1998). Endocirne system: diabetic mellitus. In Slota, M.C. Core Curriculum for Pediatric Critical Care Nursing. (pp 408-413) Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company
Grimberg, A. et al. (1999). The “ two bag system” for variable intravenous dextrose and fluid administration: Benefits in diabetic ketoacidosis management. Journal of Pediatrics 134(3):376-378.
KleKamp, J. & Churchwell, K.B. (1996). Diabetic ketoacidosis in children: initial clinical assessment and treatment. Pediatric Annals 25(7):387-393.
Menon, R.K. & Sperling, M.A.(1998) Diabetic Ketoacidosis. In Fuhrman, B.P. & Zimmerman, J.J., Pediatric Critical Care (pp.844-852). St. Louis, MO: Mosby
Rosenbloom, A.L. & Hannas, R. (1996). Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA): treatment guidelines. Clinical Pediatrics 35(5):261-266.
Trimarchi, T. (2001) Endocrine Critical Care Problems:Hyperglycemia. In Curley, M.A.Q. & Maloney-Harmon, P.A. Critical Care Nursing of Infants and Children. (pp 815-819). Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company