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Judgment, Choices and Reasoning
Fallacies
Judgment and the elements of Reasoning
Analysis of reasoning
Analysis of judgment
Relation of concept and judgment
Order of development of the cognitive
processes
Judgment as primitive cognitive activity
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Analysis of reasoning reasoning is present from the beginning of conscious life
in the human being, involving perception and memory and imagination and
conception
may define it broadly and provisionally aspurposivethinking, that is to say, thinking carried on in the interestsof some plan which we wish to execute, some problemwhich we wish to solve, some difficulty which we wish tosurmount.
to involve the selection of certain ideas out of all those
supplied us by the problem, the manipulation of theseideas in accordance with previously acquired habits, andthe attainment of the solution by a proper combination ofthese two processes.
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Analysis of judgment A judgment, when put into words, is what logicians call a
proposition, and what grammarians call a sentence.
that a process of reasoning, such as that of our illustration, containsconcepts combined in the form of judgments.
judgment is a new mental operation to which we must now devoteour attention.
Judgment and verbal expression; if the judgment is in any measureequivalent to a proposition or a sentence, we ought to gain
assistance, in the distinguishing of its principal forms, from theclassifications of the grammarians and logicians
In the judgment, " the book is heavy," we have the concept heavyunited to the concept book
verbal precipitates of judgment we seem then to have two or moreideas mentally united in meanings which may imply either the
postulated union or severance of the objects to which they refer
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Relation of concept and judgment
the origin of concepts spring out of the mind's effort to mark off, andrender distinct, the various meanings
some specific instances of the attainment and development of aconcept, an instructive fact concerning the relation betweenconception and judgment
E.g the concept of bad, badness Such a mental act obviously has implicit in it the beginnings ofjudgment, i. e., the assertion of a relation between two mentalelements. When, with increasing age, language finally comes to ourassistance, we are easily able to apprehend the usage of our elders,and we straightway apply the term "bad" to all acts of a certaincharacter
Judge according to large measure of confidence in its correctness
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Order of development of the
cognitive processes Judgment, conception, memory, imagination, perception
are in one form or another present in consciousness from the veryfirst; and each process, which we have described and analysed -under one or another of these names, really involves each of theother processes. At certain moments consciousness presents itselfas dominantly engaged in the way we callperception, sometimes inthe way we call imagination. But each operation involves the other,and it would hardly be possible to point to a stage in developmentwhere one was obviously present and the other obviously andaltogether absent.
situation as regards its primary or secondary nature, its early or lateappearance, in the history of the individual consciousness
the mental operation of cognising the object is essentially equivalentto the assertion, "this is a chair," or "this is a thing to sit (231) upon.
Another sound may represent judgments in the form of a command,such as " I-am-hot-and-I-wish-you-would-take-the-blanket-off."
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Judgment as primitive
cognitive activity original form all judgment is essentially a
reaction upon immediately present perceptualexperiences
Undoubtedly, rude judgments in which memory
and imagination play leading roles may occur ata very early period
the highly developed ideational judgments, therecognition, or assertion, of relations, it seems
impossible to deny that the simplest case ofperception, with its connection of a first sensorystimulation with something already familiar, isalso implicitly, at least, of the same genus as the
judgment.
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judgment does really deal with the analysis of
ideational (or perceptual) experiences
Judgment is, then, in its most explicit forms,undoubtedly a process in which we synthesise
concepts in the course of noting and asserting
relations.
the synthesis may bring out relations of whichpreviously we- were not clearly cognisant. From
this point of view judgment is not so much a
matter of creating wholly new mental material as
it is a matter oforderingour mental equipment inthe most efficient possible manner
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Distinguishing judgment from
decision making
Hogarth (1997)
Decision making influenced by economist and
statisticians research on how decisions to be made.
Focusing on how people decide on a course of action Judgment has been influenced by research on
perception
Judgment are usually regarded as assessment,
estimates, that provide input to decision making Judgments vary in accuracy (meximising accuracy),
decisions vary in optimality ( maximising returns
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Judgment are assessed in terms of how
accurate they are, while decisions are
assessed in terms of their potential
consequences
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Distinguishing problem solving from
judgment and decision making
Problem solving task solution- effective
Optimal decisions are unlikely to have
same effectiveness each time that theyare
implemented.
People make decisions in unpredictable
environments, but
Solve problems in predictable ones
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Different types of judgment task
Studies indicated several types of judgment task
Naturalistic decision making,
Effect of stress on judgement
E.g Funk (1995) defines different types of task interms of situation and system factors
Hammond (1996, 2000) more subject-based approach:
different task are defined in terms of the type of cognitive
processing
Theres also studies of multiple cue probability learning,
suggest the number of cues and the intercorrelations
between them have different effect on judgements
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Cognitive process underlying
judgment and decision making
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Choices and reasoning fallacies
http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2/plg%20552/rational%20choice.pdf -
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Research: Possibilities on putting the three
concepts together in research
Identification of informal reasoning
fallacies as a function of epistemological
level, grade level and cognitive ability
Weinstock, P, Neuman, Y and Glassner a
(2006) Journal of Educational Psychology;
Vol 89, No 2, 327 - 341
http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2/plg%20552/edu-98-2-327.pdf