Ijumpedwhenaskedforthislecture.Thoughmybook,TheInfluenceofJapaneseArtonDesign,onlytoucheduponwallpaper,IknewitwasatopicreflectingeveryconcernaboutdomesticityintheGildedAge.Mymindflewtohomeasnurturingrefugeandwellspringofmoraluplift,beautyandaestheticsintheageofindustrialization,newcommercialism,internationalism,visionsof“modern,etc.,etc.—allbroughtintosharpreliefbytheuniqueandveryvariablerolethatJapanplayedinthesethings.Animmenselyfascinatingstory.PuttingitalltogetheristheproverbialGordianKnot—Irealized,anotherbook!Intwohours,Icanonlyshutmyeyes,diveinandkeepmygoalsalotmoremodest:alittlecontext,afewimportantpoints,afairlyorganizedsenseofaprocessthatlackedasinglestraightsequenceanywhere,andhopefullytohoneyoureyeinawaythatwillprimeyourlaterencounters,andtoseeandthinkoutofthebox.

Tobegin:Japaneseinfluenceonwallpapersoriginatesinanextendedmomentofinternationalfrenzythatbeganinthelate1850’s,peakedin1872,whenitwassimultaneouslydubbed“Japonisme”inFranceandthe“JapanCraze”inEngland,crestedinEuropebythe1880’s,butburnedbrightlyintheUSforanothertwodecades.Whatdoesa“craze”looklike?

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Itmeantordinarygirls,prostitutesandartists’models,America’ssocietydaughters,Monet’sFrenchwife,Whistler’sEnglishgirlfriend,womeneverywheredelightingingeishafantasies,forportraits,teapartiesandevenchurchsociables.ItmeantthatfewsawasoddBritishActressLilyLangtreeadvertisingAmericanEagleTobaccoinJapanesegarb.LangtrywasportrayingnotjustanyJapaneselady,butamake‐believeprincess:YumYum,heroineoftheMikado,thedaffyoperettathattookEnglandandAmericabystormin1883andrancontinuouslyforacentury.Whenyougetthatkindofadhocmixing,youareseeingaprocessofassimilation.

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“JapanCraze”meantthatcreativeandnot‐socreativemindssoughtthat“Japaneseeffect.”ThenonsenseoftheMikado,thescoresofnow‐forgottenmusicals,dramasandshowsitinspired—inwhichrealJapanesethemselvesasoftenasnotparticipated—wasonlytheentertainmentsideofafascinationthatappearedequallynonsensicallythroughoutsociety

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“Japan”couldmakeyourcoffeeandmarshmallowstastier,yourtoiletriessmellbetter,yourskinsofter,yourmake‐upmoreperfect,yourwallsprettierandevenyourpetfishhappier.Itwasallunreal.Butdidthatmatter???Soontheonehand,thewallpapersweareabouttoseeareathomeinjustsuchaworldofbuddingcommercialism,graphicexperimentationandfantasy.

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Oneperson—onlyone—trulyunderstoodthisphenomenon:theera’smostastutecommentatorandmuseoftheJapanCrazewhoseflamboyantpersonbespoketheage,TheApostleofAestheticism:OscarWilde.withtypicalflairhecapturedthespiritofJapaneseart—andwhatthemostimaginativeWesternersdidwithit: Nogreatartisteverseesthingsastheyreallyare.Ifhedid,hewouldceasetobeanartist…doyoureallyimaginethattheJapanesepeopleastheyarepresentedtousinarthaveanyexistence?Ifyoudo,youhaveneverunderstoodJapaneseartatall.Theyarethedeliberateselfconsciouscreationofcertainindividualartists.IfyouseeapicturebyanyofthegreatnativepaintersbesidearealJapanesegentlemanorlady,youwillseethereisnottheslightestresemblancebetweenthem.TheactualpeopleofJapanarenotunlikethegeneralrunofEnglish,thatistosay,theyareextremelycommonplaceandhavenothingcuriousorextraordinaryaboutthem.Infact,thewholeofJapanisapureinvention.Thereisnosuchcountry,therearenosuchpeople…theJapanesepeopleare…simplyamodeofstyle,anexquisitefancyofart.Andso,ifyoudesiretoseeaJapaneseeffect,youwillnotbehavelikeatouristandgotoTokyo…youwillstayhomeandsteepyourselfintheworkofcertainJapaneseartists,andthen,whenyouhaveabsorbedthespiritoftheirstyleandcaughttheirimaginativemannerofvision,youwillgosomeafternoonandsitintheparkorstrolldownPiccadilly,andifyoucannotseeanabsolutelyJapaneseeffectthere,youwillnotseeitanywhere.

That,inanutshellisthestandardwayofviewingwallpaperslikethisunidentifiedfrieze—its“Japaneseeffect”ofrandompinwheelstumblingthroughfloralsprigsagainstaflatground.But,Crazenotwithstanding,itistooglibtoemphasize,asistypical,thatthislookwasmerelyvogue.Rather,asWilde’swordshint,itreflectsapervasiveexperimentationunderway,spawnedbytheconvictionofthemostinfluentialandthoughtfuloftheVictoriancreativeworld,thatJapanesedesignofferedresolutionstotheirmostmajordilemmas.Thisisaprofoundkindofborrowing.Itintroduceddesignprincipleswestillfollow,sowhatmadeJaponesquedesigns“Japonesque”isbestunderstoodasanearlygropingtowardamodernlanguageofdesignappropriateforamodernworld.Japaneseinfluencehashadlongreach,anditsapparentinvisibilitynowisameasureofitsimportance.Wallpapersaretellingexamplesofthis.ThesearetheissuesIwanttoframethispresentationtoday,toleaveyoupoisedtoreconsiderthedesignmovementsthatsucceededtheapparentendoftheCrazeitself.

Firstly,therearefactorstoconsideraboutJapan,thenatureofitslinkstothewestandavenuesofinfluence:

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“Japonesque”isnothing“Japanese.”MorenuancedwiththeirwallsthanintheVictorianWest,Japanlinkedtheirdecorationwithinteriorfunctionandevenpersonalroles.Theiviedwallsofthis17thcenturyimperialretreatevokeliteraryassociationsandprincelycontemplation;Seatedbeneaththearchingpineinagoldenlandscapetransformedashogunintoamanendowedbytheforcesofnature—thepictorialtropeofConfuciansuperiority

IntheeraoftheJapanCraze,Japanwasextricatingitselffromthesetraditionstotransformitselfintoamodernnation.Itdidnotwanttoemphasizeitsdefunctrecentpast.Evenifenthralledbytheirromance,fewoftheveryfewWesternerswhomighthaveseensuchinteriorscomprehendedthem.Itwouldhavemadelittledifferenceanyway,forthevaluestheyrepresentedweretooaliendespitetheadaptabilityoftheirwalldesigns.Forallitsborrowings,Japaneseinfluenceisdistincttoitself,achildofWesternfantasyononehand,andWesternaestheticsophisticationandinnovationontheother—asWildenoted.Inmanyways,moreimportantthanJapaninthetransformationofwallpaperdesign,iswhathappenedtoJapanesemotifsandprinciplesinthehandsofE.W.Pugin,OwenJones,E.W.Godwin,ChristopherDresser,andtheAmericanArthurWesleyDow,amongothers.

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Whatpeoplewereseeingthatwasmakingthemsocrazywithinspirationwereinpartobjectsfromthisworld,andinpartobjectsdesignedentirelywithusinmind.Atrickleinthemid‐1850’sbythe1870’shadbecomeafloodofprints,paintings,lacquers,bronzes,silver,ceramics,souvenirs,oldandnew,cheapandexpensive,traditionalandmodern—andallofitcompletelyupendingstandardideasofbeauty,ofdesign,ofmaterial,andlet’sfaceit,asWildenoted,ofattitude.thefirstimpactwasfeltinFrance.

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There,ideasgarneredfromJapaneseitemandimagesfoundtheirwaynotonlyintoradicalexperimentsofpainting,butalsoinsuchthingsasdishdesign,oftenbysomeofthesameartists.TheseearlyeffortswerequintessentialJaponesque;suchobjectsretainedalloftheiressential,traditionalcharacteristics,butinornamentreplicatedpreciselyanexoticismfoundfascinating,includingcertaindecorativeprinciples—suchastheextensionofmotiftotheedgesoftheplate,ratherthanconfiningittothecenter,aswasconventional.TheParisianavantgardewasinternationalone;someofthefiguresimportanttouswereamongthosewhomingledandsharedideas

Butforanartinspirationtobetrulypervasive,foracrazetooccur,ithastobeembracedbythebroadestpublic.WecanactuallypointtoaspecificdateonwhichJapanexplodedintoWesternconsciousness,andforwallpaperdesignitwasnotthe“Japonisme”ofFrance,buttheJapanCrazeignitedinEngland.

ItistotheInternationalexpositionsthatweowetheJapanCraze.ThefirstexplosiveeffectwasattheLondonexpositionof1862:SirRutherfordAlcock’sJapaneseCourttransfixedmillions—amongthemE.W.Pugin,OwenJones,ChristopherDresser,EWGodwin,andotherreformersintheartanddesignworld.ConvincedthatWesternsociety,sulliedbytheIndustrialRevolution,needednewsolutions,newly‐openedfeudalJapanwasahighlightofthe“orientalism”theyconsidered”afreshwellofart”atatimewhen“art”wasthoughtthedistillationofallthatwasgoodorbadaboutasociety.Inadditiontomillionsofvisitors,journalisticandcriticalcommentaryfannedawarenessfromthispointonward.

Japan,inthedeaththroesofitsfeudalera—hadnothingtodowiththisevent.ThosefewJapanesewhoevensawitfoundeverythinginauthenticandaestheticallybeneathcontempt.Evenanembarrassment.ButitsdramaticsuccessinspiredthosebehindtheMeijirestorationonly6yearslater,resultinginahugeofficialpresenceatsubsequentfairs,largelydefinedbyWesterntastesandexpectations.Astheeraprogressed,everythingfromexportgoods—wallpapers,ceramics,textiles,bronzes,fans—totheleftoverdetritusofobjectsfromtheoldregime—foundtheirwaytothefairswherepeopleencounteredtheminagrandoleo.

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ButasIsaid,therearenostraightlinesinthisstory.Japan’sbreakneckmodernizationwasbuiltonmanufacturing.SomeofthemostimpactfulinfluencesonWesternwallpaperdesignswereJapaneseexportwallcoveringssoexquisitelypeggedtoWesterntastesthatby1912Japanwastheworld’slargestexporterofmass‐producedtextilesandwalltreatments,withadsineveryhomemagazine,newspaperanddesignpublication.Thethousandsofpatternswereaspectrumfrom“oriental”—tonot.

Westernscholarshavebeenperplexedastohowtoconsidertheseproducts,duetotheirclingingtoapersistentmythof“authenticity.”ThiselevatestheartsofJapan’sdeadpastandrejectsitsmass‐produced,hybrid,non‐traditionalproduction.Thismythishardlynew.Itarosewiththe19thcentury’smostinfluentialdesignreformerJohnRuskinandwasembracedbymanyoftheinnovatorsinwallpaperdesign:Pugin,Morris,andDow,tonameafew.Tothemmass‐producedwallcoveringsfailedthetestof“authenticity,”notonlyintermsofwhattheydeemed“real”Japanese,butalsoasimitationanything.Thelongevityofthismythisameasureoftheinfluenceofthesereformersinourstandardsoftastetoday.UnderstandingJapaneseinfluencedemandsthatwedropthisbiasandgiveexportpaperstheirdueforhavingbroughtnewmotifs,colorcombinations,formalrelationshipsandconceptsoftastetomiddleclasshomesandsensibilities.

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Besides,Westernerswere,frankly,flagrantlyinaccurateandexpedientinwheretheyfoundinspiration,andhowtheyusedit.Thesupremeexampleisalsooneoftheearliestandfinestexamplesofwalltreatments,ifnotwallpaper:theso‐calledPeacockRoomofJamesMcNealWhistler.Theownerrailedovertheunasked‐foralterationofhisdiningroom,especiallywhenpresentedthebill—butthisaudaciousextravaganzawasanunqualifiedcriticaltriumphofdécor.

describedbyWildeas“likeagreatpeacocktailspreadout”whenlit,ThePeacockroomtypifiesJaponesqueasapasticheveneerofAsianreferencesoveranentirelyWesternspace.PeacockswereconsideredtherequisiteexoticcomplementtoblueandwhiteChineseporcelains,calledbythemisnomer,“hawthornejars.”Therageforthemsentpricestofantastichighs,assuringindispensabilitytothewealthywhodisplayedthemonanelaborate“Japonesque”shelvingconstructedofspindles,ashere.

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ButmostlyWhistlerlookedtoJapan,whoseeveryartformforhimexemplifiedthe“rarifiedidealofbeauty”attheheartoftheAestheticphilosophytowhichheadhered.Hesoughttheeffectofalacquerbox—objectsofgreatappealtoVictoriansfortherichnessofpatternandtechniqueonasingleobject.Hereplicatedthoseeffectsbybuildingupsurfacesbeneaththegoldandsilverandincludingmetallicdust.FromJapanesescreens,heborrowedthesquarepatternsoftheirlargeexpansesofgoldandtheirdimensionaleffectsforthehingedshutters.Paintingsandprintsofpeacockswereimmenselypopularimports.Whistlerownedaprintverysimilartothis,whichtantalizinglyresemblesthebirdontheleftshutter.Abagofmixedreferences,thePeacockRoomwallsarethefinestexamplesoftheearlyspiritofJaponesquewallpaper.Fewweresosophisticated.

Becauseoftheir“authenticity”,andalsobecauseoftheirportability,andadaptabilitytoWesternspaces,thetraditionalfoldingscreenwasapopularexportitemfromJapan,andalogicalandpotentmodelforWesternwalltreatments.ButinWesternhands,theywereunderstoodmoreas“paintings”thantheportablewallsastheyactuallywere.

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Moreover,Westernersencounteredtheminavery“inauthentic”andjumbledway,usuallydisplayedinthefamiliarWesternmannerofmiscellaneousagglomeration—asoftenasnotbyJapaneseexhibitorsatInternationalExpositions,whichiswherethesephotoscamefrom.Ithinkthatsuchdisplaysthemselvesencouragedmisunderstandingaboutauthenticity,andsomeofthefirstexperimentsinwalltreatments.

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AsinoneoftheearliestknownintheUS,a1879NewYorkbedroom:Afriezeofukiyo‐eprints,fan‐bedeckedwalls,boldlyasymmetricalceilingmotifs,andminiatureparasols—thecheapestofsouvenirs—servingaslampshades.I’vetriedtoreplicateitsflamboyantbarrageofcolorandpattern,andwhimsicalexoticism.ItisafloridmisinterpretationofastylethatoriginatedwithaclosefriendofWilde’sandWhistler,theinfluentialBritisharchitectdesignerE.W.GodwinwhoseadvocacyofcreativeadaptationofthingsJapaneseincludedtheconceptofrestraint.Godwinnamedthisstyle,withwhichmanyofyouareprobablyalreadyquitefamiliar,“AngloJapanese”

GodwinneverwenttoJapan.Heknewitfromthefewbooksavailable,thecrowdeddisplaysofAlcock’sJapaneseCourtin1862,theimportsofLiberty&CoandParisiangalleries,andthethen‐smallcollectionintheSouthKensingtonMuseum,nowtheVictoria&Albert.HisconceptincludedaWesternmantraofgooddesign:harmony.Asthisengravingofhisownfoyershows,“harmony”meantthat“Japanese”wallscalledfor“Japanese”textiles,lampshades,woodtrim,vases,andplankfloors.Moreover,youcanalsoseeinbothroomsanotherconventionof“Japanese”taste—mixingofmiscellaneouspatterns—whichwewillseeagain.

HisAnglo‐Japaneseconceptalongreach.ThisillustrationwasthefrontispieceoftheinfluentialArtFurniture,amanufacturer’scatalogofGodwin’sdesigns.AvailableintheUSandpiratedinmajorAmericanpublicationssuchasDecoratorandFurnisher,whereIdiscoveredit;hisdesignsandwallpapersbothpurchasedbywealthyAmericans,andviewabletothegeneralpublicatoneofAmerica’sseminaleventsofthelate19thcentury:

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the1876CentennialExpositioninPhiladelphia,wherealongwithAnglo‐Japanesestyle,JapanitselfarrivedinatidalwaveofartgoodsandthefirstJapanesebuildingsintheUS.Thecriticalimpactwas,again,explosive.

Anglo‐JapanesestylerevealedtoAmericansawaytoadapttheseexoticinspirations.Godwin’sfurniturefeaturedinBritishdisplays.And,inpersontherecognizeddesigngenius,massproductionpioneerandcharismaticallycharmingChristopherDresser,lecturedatthefairandsignedcontractswithwallpapercompanies.Dresser,inthethrallofJapan,wasenrouteonhisfirsttripthere.Thoughthevisitwouldcompletelytransformhisvision,hiswallpapersreflectedhisearlierAesthetic/Anglo‐Japaneseperspective.

Unlikethosewhocondemnedmechanizationonartisticandmoralgrounds—Dresser,likeOwenJones,embracedit,andrecognizedintheeconomicalformalismofJapanesedesignanexcellentmodelformassproductionthatcouldbringthemoralupliftofgooddesigntothemasses.Sofar,Ihaveyettoseehiswallpaperdesigns,yethispre‐JapantripdesignsinothermediaarequintessentialJaponesque,andhisinfluenceissuchthathisideasarepresentevenifwecannotpreciselyseethem.Sowiththat,Iwanttoexplorethisprocessofadaption,beginningwithworkbyhisfriend,E.W.Godwin.

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OnecommonfascinationwasforJapan’straditionalheraldicsymbols,Mon.Godwin’ssketchbooksincludestudiesofthem—andcreativerevisioningsoffamiliarmotifsintomon‐likedesigns.MonbecamethebasisforelegantwallpapersthataregreatexamplesofthetwosidestotheattractionofJapanesemotifs.

monillustratetheera’slinkingofdesignandsocialphilosophy.Manyromanticizedtheseclansymbolsasvestigesofalostfeudalerawhosemoralpuritywasmanifestinthe“honesty”ofitsarts,makersperceivedasmembersofguilds‐‐cooperativesofhighstandards,handwork,andpurecreativespirit.Ruskin,Morris,E.W.Pugin(expandingupontheideasofhisfather,A.W.)andothersbemoanedasakindofmoralsellouteveryaspectofJapan’smodernization(likeitsinexpensivemassproducedwallpapers).ToassimilatemonintoaBritishdomesticenvironmentthoughwallpapersoranyothermediumwastobringthemoraluplifttheyheldintothehome.Godwinnodoubtascribedtothisidealismatleastinpart.

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ButGodwinwasmorethanromanticdreamerandslavishimitator.Heproselytized“assimilation”andsoughttorejectsuperficialexoticism.HisareamongtheearliestattemptstoadaptJapanesedesignprinciplesindependentof“Japaneseness”itself,tocreatedesignsappropriateforthemoderntimeshelivedin.Inspecific,thegraphicpowerofsucheconomical,two‐dimensionalpatterndrewhiseye.Thus,itislikelynoaccidentofaresemblancebetweenhisreinterpretationofthepeacockasamonwithfamiliarforms,andwithadaptingmotifstodistinctlyun‐Japanesepurposes—wallpaperbeingbutone.

Thelaurelwreathmotifofthisearly19thcpapermakesclearthatverysimilareffectsarereadilyfoundonEuropeanpre‐industrialwalltreatments.Inaconventionalera,suchformalparallelsmadeexoticJapanesemotifscomprehensibleandacceptable,whilethegraphiceconomyand2‐DeleganceofJapanesedesignsvalidatedtheoreticalrationalesforthesuperiorityofcertainapproachesoverothersinearlymassproduction..

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Inadditiontodespairingoverquality,Western“socio‐aesthetic”theoristsdetestedthenewmassproduction’sdelightinimitationeffects.Thesetheycastinamoraldimensionas“dishonest.”Trompl’oeile,ofwhichtheFrenchweremajorproponents,theyconsideredatravestythatdidnotrespecttheflat,solidessenceofwalls.Readingtheshrillcondemnationofawallpaperexhibitthatfeaturedagiantspeedingtrainbearingdownaroom’soccupants,onecouldarguethattheyhadapoint..(Anirony,astheJapaneseweremastersoftrompl’oeilinmanymedia)“Problems”suchasthisledtotheideathatornamentshouldnotbelefttodevelopunguided,butneededcorrectiveprinciples.

Japanofferedapowerful“moral”alternativetoFrenchdominanceofinteriordesign.Godwin,PuginandJones—perhapsbecausetheyalsowerepracticingarchitectsanddesignersaswellastheorists—foundinJapanesedesigntheperfectantidotestothisscourge.QualitiesattributedtorecentlyfeudalJapanalsoincludedtheelevationofnatureasthetruesourceofallgoodornament.Thescreenaboveisbothrealisticallybotanicalandfrankly2‐D;thetextilestencilisinspiredbythepatternsofcrackedice..

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Onecanseetheseconventionsinelegantstylizationsbydesignersoftheday.TheseshowthatwhatwasreveredbyVictoriansas“Japanese”reallycouldbedescribedasakindofalanguageof“taste.

JonesandPuginwereamongthefirsttolinkJapanesedesigndynamismtoitsconformingofornamenttofunctionandmaterial.Thismettheircriteriathatformshouldbeappropriatetopurpose,andthatdecorationshouldrevealform.Designslikemon,andtherandomblossomspatternontextilestencils,havemanyformalqualitiescompatiblewithwallpaper,namelythatflatnesswasembracedasanessentialquality.This“DaisyDiaper”designJonesfranklyattributedtoJapaneseprecedents.ThepatternontherightofrandomdaisiesagainstatrellisbyanunknowndesignerofthesameperiodverylikelydrewitsinspirationfromJones’theories.

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JapanesedesignalsoconformedtoOwenJones’36generalprinciplesintheArrangementofForm&ColorinArchitectureandtheDecorativeArts—hisconceptoftruebeautyarisingfromtheexperienceofreposeobtainedfromfitness,proportionandharmony,absenceofallinessentials,andunderlyinggeometricalorder.Thesepreceptsaretobefoundinhiswallpaperof1860,whichresemblespatternsinhislandmark'TheGrammarofOrnament(1856),inwhichheencourageddesignerstolookbeyondthetraditionalplantsoftheclassicalrepertoire.ThesetypicalJapanesestencilsshowhowJapanesedesignconventionshappentoconformexactlyJone’sviews,andareverysuggestiveofthedesignsbyGodwin—unsurprisinginlightofthefactthatallofthesedesignreformerswerewell‐acquaintedwitheach‐otherswork,andoftenfriends.

Therearealsoconventionsthatblurthelinebetween“motif”and“compositionalstructure,”

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Latticesentwinedwithgardenvines,appealingfortheirInformality,randomnessanchoredbygeometry,wereamongthemostpopularofofthemanymotifsinspiredbyJapan.Weoftendon’tlinkWm.MorriswithJapan‐derivedideas,butsomeofhisdesignswere,includingthisfamousonethatwasproducedinseveraldelicateJapanese‐inspiredcolorcombinations:depictedinsitubyGodwinforoneofhisgrandhomedesigns—lestyoudoubtthelatticepatterntobeinspiredbyJapan,notehisdepictionoftheladyinkimono.

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JapanesedesignalsomanagedtosimultaneouslymeetwhatwouldappeartobemutuallyexclusiveVictorianattractions:abizarrecounterpointtotheelevationof“structureandgeometry”wasequallovefor“randomness”andhorrorvaccui.Japanesedesignssuchascrackedice,miscellaniesoftextilepatternsandfloatingfancartouchesmetthesepenchants,theircrisply‐outlinedasymmetrycreatingakindofordertochaosthatwasasreassuringasitwasdaringandnovel.Victorianpatternsthatattempttoreplicatethateffectof“structuredrandomness”areamongthemostcommonofJaponesquedesigns—thetextilebyGodwinmayactuallycopyaJapanesedesigndirectly.

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WhileinnovativedesignreformerssuchasGodwin,Dresser,JonesandPuginattemptedtodiscerntheunderlyingdesignprinciples,or“grammar”of“Japanese”—asJoneshimselfwouldhaveputit,theCrazemeantthatthe“vocabulary”ofJapanesemotifswasadaptedwilly‐nillybyeveryoneelse.Wallpapersshareimageryandorganizationalschemeswithallsortsofotherobjects.Ininteriordécor,thisallowedfortheequallyimportantVictorianpenchantforharmony—yourwalls,upholstery,curtains,furniture,lamps,vases,windowsandalldecorativeaccentsdowntothedoorknobsallcouldbe“Japanese.”

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Oneofmyfavoritemotifs,theSpiderweb,wasalsoaVictorianfavoritethatappearsineveryconceivablecontext.IthinkitmettheVictorianpenchantfor“honesty”,hominess,informality—andalsogeometry.Another—highlyironicgiventhenoiseabout“honesty”isthecommonJapanesevisualtrickofprojectingelementspastadefinedborder,denying2‐d.Also,thiswallpaper,withitswindblownpoppies,pinks,daisiesandotherflowersinshadesofpinkandpeagreens,adaptsbothnaturalismandsubtletertiarycolorcombinationsinspiredbyUkiyo‐eprints.Somecommentatorsconsideredsuchschemes“barbaric”incontrasttotheconventionalforboldred,blueandgold.Thepreferenceforcomplexcolorswouldbeamongthemostlong‐lastingofJapaneseeffects,extendingwellintotheeraofArts&Crafts,andthereforebecomesoneofthemostubiquitous,andinvisible,ofconventionsadaptedfromJapan.

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Bythe1880’sInadditiontothousandsofexportedfurniture,lacquers,carvings,paintings,printsandceramicstobeseeninshopseverywhere,mass‐producedtextilesandwallcoverings,Japanesepatternscametothepublicfilteredthroughmanyun‐Japanesesources:designjournalssuchasDecoratorandFurnisher,ArtAmateur,SiegfriedBing’sArtisticJapan,andothers,theirverypresentationsuggestingideastobereplicated.

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ItissuggestedthatLCTiffanyusedactualJapanesepapersforthewallsofhislibraryinthenow‐lostBellaApartments.Thisroom,createdaroundthetimeofthosedesignjournals’patchwork‐likesamplersofJapanesepattern,temptstheideathatthisisperhapsareplicationwithactualJapanesepaperonalargescale.Itsharesmorewiththosesamplers,orperhapsdisplaysatexpositionsthanitdoeswithanysortofauthenticJapanesewalltreatment.It’sclutterispurelyVictorian;themiscellanywealsosawinE.W.Godwin’sfoyer.Inshort,itisreallywhollyWestern.ItisunlikelythatTiffanyhadanyinterestinbeingauthentic,insteadusingJapaneseaestheticsasheunderstoodthemasaspringboardforhisownideas.

Althoughtheirpersonalaestheticswerepolesapart—GodwinaustereandTiffanyopulent,theyhaveincommonimportantrolesasearlyassimilators—theinitialstepsinaprocessinwhichultimatelyovertlyexoticsurfaceelementsdisappear,leavingtheirunderlyingprinciplesasaformaldesignapparatus.

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AssimilationisthekeyelementoftheprogressionfromJapanesetomodernism,andJaponesqueisthekeytransitionalstep.TheprocessiseasytoseeintheadaptationoftheJapanese“miscellany”ofcartouchesandpattern.FromaroundthesametimeasthedesignswithconsciouslyJapaneseelementsthatwe’vealreadyseen,therewerealsomanyexamplesofthesesameformalarrangementsappliedtootherexoticmotifsandlocales,andalsoveryfamiliarones—ashere,withitspicturesofNiagaraFallsandotherfamousNorthAmericansights.TheexoticPersian‐inspiredmotifsoftheonetoitsrightdistractfromwhatisessentiallyaJaponesqueunderlyingstructureofoverlappingcartouchesinavarietyofshapes,andanemphatictwo‐dimensionality.

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Thisassimilativeprocesscatalyzedmanymedia—WallpapersshareaquintessentialVictorianeradesigntrendthatissimplyareorganizationofWesternpictorial“vocabulary”toJapanese“grammar.”Theukiyo‐eprint—inadditiontoraisingthesophisticationofwalltreatments,contributeditsschemesofcolorandmotif,composition,useofsymbols,editedimagery,andcropping,tothenewprofessionofadvertisingdesign.Inothercases,weseeakindofneutralizedexoticism—thestructuralgrammarappliedtoallsortsof“foreign”motifs,andtheresultgivenasuitablydistantname—asinthisplate,fromaseriescalled“Cairo.”“Melbourne”wasanother.Weseesuchdesignsasquaint.However,theynotonlyweremodernintheirday,theysetthestagefortheabsorptiontothepointofinvisibility—andatthepointwhereWesterndesignersandartistsareworkingwiththeseprinciplescompletelyfreeofJapanitself,wehavetheearliestexamplesoftrulymoderndesign.

AmajorstepcamethroughanAmerican.ThismagazinecovershareskeyelementspromotedbyPugin,Jones,andothers—anaturemotifeditedtobasics,two‐dimensionality,geometricstructure,compositionalbalance.TheexoticflowerandtitlemakeclearthelinktoJapan.Indeed,thedesigner—likehisEnglishcounterparts—openlyespousedJapaneseprinciples.ThiswasArthurWesleyDow—universallyrecognizedassingle‐handedlychangingarteducationinAmerica.Evenmorethanhislecturesnationwideandeminenceatthetopschoolsoftheday,theheartofhisstunninglysuccessfulcampaigntoupliftartatatimewhenitwasconsideredacenterpieceoflearninglayinhis1899book,Composition.Compositionwentinto13editions,fordecadesthemostinfluentialartedbookintheUnitedStates.Virtuallyeveryseriousartistordesignerencounteredit,sothatit’simpactisfeltevenwhenitisnotopenlyacknowledgedorrecognized.IfyouthinkyoufeelakinshipbetweentheworkofGeorgiaO’Keefeandotherrobustlypowerfulworksthroughthe1930’sandsomeofthewallpapersweareabouttosee,youarecorrect.ShewasoneofDow’smostfamousstudents.

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Dow’stheorieswerecatalyzedbyJapaneseukiyo‐eprintsattheBostonMuseumofFineArts.HedistilledwhattheyinspiredintoamethodologythathegavetheJapanesename:“nōtan”essentiallymeaningBalance.Bynotanhemeantakindofpsychologicalsenseofpoise,achievedbyanexquisitelycalibratedinterrelationshipofline,form,andshadow.WhatinspiredhimisreadilyapparentwhenwecompareDow’spaintingontheleftwiththeprintontherightbythe19thcenturyJapaneseartistKuniyoshi.Asanaestheticstandard,Dow’snotancloselyresemblesOwenJones’36Principles,withtheirassertionoftruebeautyintheharmonyachievedbyproportion,geometricstructureandthesubtractionofallbuttheessential.ButDowgeneralizedthistoallthearts,notjustindustrialanddecorativearts,whichledhimtore‐envisionhisownworkintotherecognizablymoderndirections.

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NotantheorywasintrinsicallycompatiblewiththeAmericanArts&CraftsMovement—whichthoughbornintheideasofRuskin(whoevidentlyregardedJapansuspiciously)alsolookedtoPugin,JonesandMorris,andlikethemtookinspirationfromJapan.AmericanA&ClikewisereliedheavilyonitsowninterpretationsofJapaneseconceptsofcolor,material,form,andthe“personalcharacter”thesecouldgenerate.TheubiquityofDow’snotanconceptIbelieveaccountsfortheaestheticunityofArts&Craftsdesigns,manyofwhichhavebeenspecificallylinkedtohisaesthetic.GruebyArtPotteryofBostonisfrequentlycitedasrepresentativeofDow’sideasasexpressedincraft,andthelinkbetweenthistilefromthefamous“Trees”seriesandtheJapaneseprintisobviousintheflatcellsofcolorintertiarygradedhues,thinoutlines,abstractionofformstogeometricsuggestion,andasymmetricalcompositions..Wefindthesamequalities‐‐flatcellsofcolor,simple,abstractedformsboundedbythinoutline,organizedinadynamicbalanceinthesewallpaperfriezes.

NeitherthetilenorthefriezeshaveanythingovertlyJapaneseaboutthembutNōtandefinesthem:.So,fourdecadesfromthefirstintroductionofJapaneseconceptsinthe1860’s,lateVictorianexperimentationhadleft“Japaneseness”behind

Withthis,everythingisinplaceforthefuture:

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Fastforwardtoourlifetimes—whatistherelationshipbetweenJapanandsuchpapers?Notan—atleastasoriginallyconceived‐‐doesnotcomeintoplayatall.ThereisnothingJaponesqueaboutanyofthese,either.ButIwouldconsiderJapanesedesignasessentialtotheprocessthatbroughtustothispoint.

First,beingrepresentativeofthetheoriesofthelikesofJones,Dresser,Godwin,PuginandothersembeddedJapaneseaestheticsintheideasofthecuttingedgeprogressivesoftheearlyMachineAge—notsomuchforspecificmotifs,butatatimeoftransformationaltechnologies,asastandardofcolor,line,andcomposition.Distilledtotheirmostbasicessence,wewindupwithdesignslikethese—thatcelebrate“handqualities”ononehand,andmachineperfectionontheother.—andall,note,resolutly2‐D

Butevenmoreimportant,formany,manyintheartanddesignworldpre‐WWI,theoverridingimpactoftheirencounterwithJapaneseartanddesignwasthat,inthewordsofseveral,itfreedus.Inanerastranglingitselfonthechallengesofindustrializationandmassproduction,ontheonehanditshowedthattechnologywasnotincompatiblewithaestheticquality,andinatimeofextremeconventionalityontheother,Japanesedesignofferedawayout—newwaysofcolor,ofmaterial,ofmotifandofdesign.itallowedtheunconventionalpeopleofthattimeawaytothinkoutofthestraightjacketoftheirera.Withoutthatunleashing,thesedesignscouldneverhavebeen.

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