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Chemistry 4631
Instrumental Analysis
Lecture 10
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UV-Vis Instruments
Types of Instrumentation
– Single beam
– Double beam in space
– Double beam in time
– Multichannel
– Speciality
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UV-Vis Instruments
Types of Instrumentation
Single beam
Requires stable voltage supply to keep
stable beam intensity.
Accuracy generally 1-2%
Example: Spectronic 20.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Single beam
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Spectrophotometers
Single- Beam
for UV/vis
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UV-Vis Instruments
Typical Instruments
Photometers
A Filter Photometer is the least expensive instrument, has lots of light power, only a single wavelength, uses filters, and has good sensitivity.
However cannot take a spectrum with this type of instrument.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Visible Photometers
Single or Double Beam
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UV-Vis Instruments
Types of Instrumentation
Double Beam
Two beams are formed by V-shaped
mirror called a beam splitter.
One beam passes through the
reference cell and other through the
sample.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Double Beam (space)
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UV-Vis Instruments
Double Beam
Uses an optical null procedure
An optical wedge is added into the
reference beam to make the intensity
of the reference beam equal to the
intensity of the sample beam.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Double Beam
Or beam can be separated in time by
a rotation sector mirror that directs
beam either through the reference or
sample cell.
The beam is recombined on the other
side of the cell and sent to detector.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Double Beam
Rotating mirror face is sectioned with
half of segments mirrored and half
transparent.
The beam through the reference cell is
nulled until intensity matches that of
the beam coming from the sample cell.
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UV-Vis InstrumentsDouble Beam (time)
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Spectrophotometers
Double Beam
for UV/vis
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Spectrophotometers
Double Beam
for UV/vis
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UV-Vis Instruments
Double Beam
Advantage of double beam:
Compensates for most fluctuations in
radiant output of source.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Types of Instrumentation
– Single beam
– Double beam in space
– Double beam in time
– Multichannel
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UV-Vis Instruments
Types of Instrumentation
Multichannel
Based on array detectors
Usually single-beam designs
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UV-Vis Instruments
Multichannel
Diode Array Spectrometer
Radiation from the source is focused
on the sample and passes to a
monochromator with a fixed grating.
The dispersed radiation hits a
photodiode array transducer.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Multichannel
Diode Array Spectrometer
The transducer (chip) consist of a linear
array of several hundred photodiodes (256,
512, 1024, 2048).
The chip is 1 – 6 cm in length and
individual diode widths are 15 – 50 mm.
Each diode has a capacitor and an
electronic switch.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Multichannel
Diode Array Spectrometer
Each capacitor is charged to –5V. Radiation hitting the diode partially discharges the capacitor.
The lost charge is replaced in the next switching cycle.
The entire spectrum can be obtained in one second.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Multichannel
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Spectrophotometers
Diode Array
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UV-Vis Instruments
Multichannel
Diode Array Spectrometer
Advantages:• Used for transients intermediate measurements
• Used for kinetic studies
• Can combine with chromatography
Disadvantages:• Limited resolution (1-2 nm)
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UV-Vis Instruments
Typical Instruments
Probe-Type Photometers
Uses optical fibers to transmit and collect
radiation.
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UV-Vis Instruments
Fiber Optics
Optical fibers are fine strands of glass or plastic that
can transmit radiation several hundred feet or more.
Diameter – 0.05 mm – 0.6 cm
Transmit – UV, vis, or IR radiation
Uses: medical, environmental
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Probe-Type
Photometers
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UV-Vis Instruments
Double-Dispersion Instrument
-enhance spectral resolution
-reduce scattered radiation
2-gratings – 2 monochrometers in series.
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Spectrophotometers
Double Dispersing (resolution 0.07 nm)
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Optical Instruments
Instrumental Noise
Uncertainties in the measurement of
transmission and concentration give
measurable standard deviations.
Where does this uncertainty in
measurement come from?
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Optical Instruments
Noise
% error in a signal becomes larger as the
signal becomes smaller.
Signal-to-noise (S/N) = mean/std. dev.
General rule S/N > 3 to consider as reliable
data
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Optical Instruments
Chemical Noise
Typically from changes in variables (not
part of the measured data) during the
experiment,
i.e. changes in pressure, T, humidity;
vibrations; outside light or electronic signals
(environmental); changes in atmosphere; etc…
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Optical Instruments
Environmental Noise
Components in the instrument can act
like an antenna to pick up
electromagnetic energy in the
environment and convert it to an
electrical signal.
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Optical Instruments
Environmental Noise
Can reduce by shielding, grounding, or
destructive interference.
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Optical Instruments
Instrumental Noise
Electrical or mechanical noise associated
with a component in the instrument.
Sources:
• sT = k1
• sT = k2 (T2 + T)½
• sT = k3T
(sT – standard deviation of transmittance
measurement)
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Optical Instruments
Instrumental Noise
Thermal or Johnson noise
sT = k1
Encountered with less expensive equipment
and readouts with limited resolution.
Random noise.
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Optical Instruments
Instrumental Noise
sT = k1
Also for IR equipment, due to Johnson
noise (thermal noise) in the detector.
Johnson noise is caused by thermal
agitation of electrons or carriers in
resistors, capacitors, transducers, etc..
This creates voltage fluctuations.
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Optical Instruments
Instrumental Noise
sT = k1
How to minimize?
-keep instrument cool
-reduce frequency or response time in
circuits, i.e. the slower the response to a
signal, the lower the thermal noise
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Optical Instruments
Instrumental Noise
sT = k2 (T2 + T)½
Limits precision of high quality
instruments.
Due to shot noise (random noise)
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Optical Instruments
Instrumental Noise
sT = k2 (T2 + T)½
Shot noise
When electrons or charge particles cross a junction such as at pn interfaces or movement of electrons from a cathode to an anode in a PMT.
Can minimize by slowing the response ofthe circuit.
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Optical Instruments
Instrumental Noise
sT = k3T
From a slow drift in radiant output of the
source called source flicker noise (or 1/f
noise).
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Optical Instruments
Instrumental Noise
sT = k3TFlicker noise is inversely proportional to the frequency of the signal.
Becomes significant at frequencies below 100 Hz.
Shows up as long-term drift.
Minimized by good voltage power supplies or a split beam arrangement.
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Optical Instruments
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Optical Instruments
Noise Reduction
Electronics can be designed to address noise problems.
Filters – used to exclude unwanted bandwidths. Filters can be designed to exclude:
-high frequencies (since those can carry noise) LPF (low pass filter)
-low frequencies HPF (high pass filter)
-unwanted noise or frequencies around a narrow bandwidth (band stop or notch filter) or the inverse the signal is contained in a narrow frequency BPF (band pass filter)
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Optical Instruments
Noise Reduction
Electronics can be designed to address noise problems.
Filters
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Optical Instruments
Noise Reduction
Software methods can be used to minimize noise.
For example:
- ensemble averaging – adding signals from successive runs. To double S/N take 4x # of points.
- boxcar averaging – digital method to smooth out noise. Assumes average of several points is better representation than any signal point. Take between 2 –50 points and average together to replace a point. Disadvantages – lose some detail, does not work for rapidly changing signals.
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Optical InstrumentsInstrumental Noise
Software methods can be used to minimize noise.
For example:
- Fourier transform
-acquire data in time domain (as a function of time),
-do FT to change to frequency domain (signal is usually low frequency – changes slowly and noise changes quickly – has high frequency),
-keep only the low frequency components, zero out high frequency, inverse FT to get back data.
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Assignment
• See book and manufacturer websites for
more instrument diagrams
• Read Chapter 13
• HW4 Chapter 13: 1, 2, 5-8, 11-21
• HW4 Chapter 13 Due Today
• Test 1 – Feb 14th – Lectures 1-9
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