Leadership Styles 1
Running Head: Impact of Leadership Styles
The Impact of Leadership Styles on Employee Performance
P. Parks Duncan
University of Central Florida
Leadership Styles 2
Abstract
The need to develop better leadership styles is becoming increasingly
important in all organizations. The purpose of this paper is to ascertain if
there is a correlation between the supervisor’s leadership style and the
employees’ performance, particularly in the law enforcement field. This
paper reviews three recent and widely utilized leadership styles:
contingency theory, transactional theory, and transformational theory.
There is a lack of total agreement in the reviewed literature as to the best
leadership style to be used in law enforcement, but transactional theory
appears to be more effective than contingency theory. Transformational
theory is considered by many to be an improvement to the transactional
theory of leadership. There appears to be an ever increasing number of
studies supporting the benefits of the transformational theory. In today’s
ever changing climate, there are some researchers whose findings suggest
the optimal leadership style may be a blend of transactional and
transformational theories.
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1. Introduction
This paper attempts to find a correlation between the supervisor’s
leadership style and the employee’s performance, particularly in the law
enforcement field. The use of the correct and appropriate leadership style
in all fields has long been a topic of discussion and debate by both scholars
as well as practitioners. “The desire to develop better leadership styles is
becoming a matter of increasing importance in the public sector and
especially in law enforcement agencies.” (Bruns & Shuman, 1988, p 145).
Police leadership is often not well developed because of the police culture,
the law enforcement’s bureaucratic rank and file structure and the civil
nature of the job (Densten, 1999). As a result, a variety of theories on
different leaderships styles have evolved but many have multiple similarities
(Engel, 2001). Engel (2000) initially reported that many earlier works have
suggested that supervisory styles have a significant impact on patrol officer
behavior although the author noted no research has been attempted to
evaluate the varying influence that different supervisory styles have over
police officer behavior. Engel (2003) later reported a more recent and
important finding that the style or quality of supervision can significantly
influence patrol officers’ behavior. Supervision by the sergeant can
influence some patrol officer behaviors, but this influence varies according
to the style of supervision. As Engel (2001 & 2003) notes, first-line
supervision is extremely important to police organizations’ success and the
implementation of organizational goals. But the author also reports that
Leadership Styles 4
studies on police supervision are limited in scope and fail to answer many
questions on differences in leadership styles.
For the purposes of this work, performance is defined as the execution
or accomplishment of work, acts, feats, etc. Satisfaction is defined as the
fulfillment or gratification of a desire, need, or appetite (dictionary.com).
Job satisfaction is defined as the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or
dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs. “Traditional job satisfaction facets
include: co-workers, pay, job conditions, supervision, nature of the work and
benefits.” (Williams, 2004). For the purposes of this paper, it is assumed
that leaders aspire to increase subordinates’ job satisfaction and
performance. In addition, it is further assumed job satisfaction and
performance have some degree of positive correlation and they are linked in
some fashion. For example, if employee job satisfaction increases, then
employee job performance improves. It should be noted this relationship
between job performance and job satisfaction has been the topic of
numerous studies whose results have been mixed. Arguments such as
“does satisfaction lead to performance?” or “does performance lead to
satisfaction?” or if there any correlation whatsoever between performance
and satisfaction still exist. It is still an issue of continuing debate
(Buchanan, 2006).
Three recent theories to be discussed in this paper are the contingency
theory, the transactional theory, and the transformational theory. The
contingency theory speculates that leadership styles are task or relationship
Leadership Styles 5
oriented. This theory suggests effective leadership is determined by the
situation and an effective leader is able to adapt to a variety of situations.
Several models have prevailed under the contingency theory of leadership.
The Situational Leadership Model (Hersey and Blanchard, 1977) seems to
have been the most accepted and most prevalent model under the
contingency theory (Graeff, 1983). This was deemed the most effective
leadership model from the late 1960s to the early 1980s and as such, was
the most prevalent (Bryan, 2002).
The second and third leadership theories to be discussed in this paper
were introduced by Burns (1978) who identified two types of leaders –
transactional leaders and transformational leaders. He made a sharp
distinction between transactional and transformational leadership and
considered them as opposite ends of the spectrum. While they were
somewhat similar, the transactional leadership theory and the
transformational leadership theory were distinct and had different
applications. Bass (1985) theorized that transformational leadership can be
considered an extension of transactional leadership. He hypothesized that
transformational leadership complemented transactional leadership and
they were not mutually exclusive (as cited by Johnson, 2006; Chan 2005;
Ozmen, 2009). Both transactional and transformational leadership styles
are expected to influence their subordinates’ behavior. But they may not be
equally as effective in developing all types of subordinates’ performance
(Johnson, 2006).
Leadership Styles 6
II. Contingency Theory of Leadership
The contingency theory of leadership suggests the leader's ability to
lead is dependent upon various situational factors, including the leader's
preferred style, the capabilities and behaviors of followers and various other
situational factors. There is no one best way of leading and effective
leadership styles vary from situation to situation. The theory assumes
leadership behaviors affect outcomes, such as group performance and
achieving goals, by the influencing the subordinates’ behavior (Butler &
Reese, 1991).
There have been several models utilizing the contingency theory
concepts – the Contingency Leadership Theory (Fiedler, 1967), Normative
Decision Theory (Vroom & Yetton, 1988), and Path-Goal Theory (House,
1971) (as cited by Butler and Reese, 1991). The Situational Leadership
Model (SLM) by Hersey and Blanchard (1977) stands out in terms of its
popularity with practitioners (Blank, Weitzel & Green, 1990). The SLM
depicts four leadership styles grouped by “task behavior” and “relationship
behavior”. The four styles are labeled (1) telling – a high risk/low
relationship, (2) selling – a high risk/high relationship, (3) delegating – a low
task/low relationship, and (4) participating – a low task/high relationship.
The SLM recommends the appropriate leadership style based on the
“maturity” of the subordinates. Maturity is the subordinates’ willingness
Leadership Styles 7
and ability based on education and/or experience to focus their behavior on
a task or objective. A manager’s adaptability is measured by a tool called
the “Leader Effectiveness and Adaptability Description (LEAD) (Butler &
Reese, 1991).
SLM was used extensively in the training of police managers in the
United States although it was widely acknowledged that most of the police
supervisors did not receive any formal management training. In a study of
211 police supervisors, the supervisors who were rated the most effective
utilized the SLM. (Standing Bear, 1986).
It should be noted most of these contingency theory models and
associated papers were written over 20 years, well before the development
of the transactional and transformations theories.
Does the Contingency Theory Lend Itself to Increased Employee
Performance?
Despite some studies offering limited and provisional support of the
SLM, most studies have been critical for various reasons. The researchers
indicated this is particularly surprising due to the extensive use of the SLM
and its widely accepted managerial philosophy throughout the world. The
researchers note the SLM has little verifiable support. Only a few studies
have been conducted to test its validity and most were not comprehensive
in nature. For example, several studies in the 1980s were conducted in
Leadership Styles 8
which the managers who utilized the SLM rated their subordinates’ job
performance significantly higher than managers who did not utilize the
SLM. Unfortunately no objective measures of performance were employed.
In addition, the SLM has been criticized for multiple reasons on theoretical
grounds for the reason that there is little academic justification for the
SLM’s style classifications as well as multiple arguments against the validity
of the LEAD (Butler & Reese, 1991).
Basic assumptions the SLM makes also added to the critical views of
the model. According to Graeff (1983), multiple features of the SLM such
as assumptions of the job maturity aspects of the model appear to question
its theoretical soundness and restrict its practical use. The author concedes
that the SLM makes minor contributions to the leadership arena as the
model does correctly focus on the truly situational nature of leadership and
the need for flexibility on the leader’s behalf. Blank, Weitzel & Green
(1990) supported Graeff’s findings and reported the SLM focuses on only
one situational variable (subordinate maturity) as a moderator of two leader
behaviors (task and relationship) and leader effectiveness. The authors’
research raises more questions than answers about SLM and indicates the
need for more empirical studies.
Butler & Reese (1991) conducted a study in which they examined the
relationship between 675 insurance salespersons’ performance and their 41
branch managers who employed SLM leadership styles. The researchers
reported that the data did not support the hypothesis the SLM leadership
Leadership Styles 9
styles were associated with superior sales performance. In fact, the SLM
leadership styles were associated with inferior performance. Another facet
of the study tested the four styles of the SLM. Insurance agents who
preferred the telling (high task/low relationship) had a higher job
performance than the agent who preferred other styles. The researchers
suggest these findings defy the logic on which the SLM is founded. The
findings also suggest the SLM is incomplete in its description of leadership
styles and the situations facing the leader. But the simplicity of SLM is one
reason for its popularity.
III. Transactional Theory of Leadership
Transactional theory, as its name implies, involves a “transaction” or quid
pro quo between a supervisor and a subordinate. The type of the
transaction, whether a reward or discipline, depends on the employee’s
performance. Bass (1985) theorized the transactional leaders appeal to the
subordinates’ self interests (as cited by Chan, 2005). Transactional leaders
attempt to meet the current needs of their subordinates through bargaining
and exchanging. Transactional leaders expect their followers to attain
agreed-upon goals without encouraging them to take on greater
responsibilities for self-development or leading others. There is no attempt
to change followers’ attitudes, values, growth, and development on a long-
term basis. Both leaders and followers focus on achieving the negotiated
Leadership Styles 10
performance level (Chan, 2005). A transactional leader motivates
subordinates by giving rewards for services provided. This leader clarifies
the subordinates’ goals and arranges contingent rewards as inducements
toward the achievement of the goals (Singer and Singer, 1990).
One might theorize transactional leaders would have the greatest
effect on patrol officers’ productivity such as the number of arrests, reports
or citations for the reason that supervisors can set clear quantitative
expectations that are easily monitored (Engel & Worden, 2003).
Leadership behaviors that emphasize telling or controlling would be
classified as transactional leadership because rewards and discipline are
administered according to adherence or deviation from instructions.
Transactional leadership is a reinforcement technique requiring constant
application. There are two main components of transactional leadership -
contingent reward and management-by-exception. Contingent reward is
when the leader provides rewards if the subordinate performs in
accordance with the performance expectations or expends the necessary
effort (Densten, 1999). The contingent reward aspect of transactional
leadership should also relate positively to performance in that these leaders
clarify expectations and recognize achievements that positively contribute
to higher levels of effort and performance (Bass, Avolio, Jung, and Berson,
2003). Management-by-exception represents the taking of action by the
leader when the follower does not meet the performance expectations
(Densten, 1999). In the management-by-exception approach, transactional
Leadership Styles 11
leaders clarify expectations, specify standards for compliance, define what
constitutes ineffective performance, and monitor closely to ensure that
deviances and errors are corrected promptly (Bass, Avolio, Jung, and
Berson, 2003 cited by Chan, 2005).
Van Maanen’s “Station House Sergeant” vs. “Street Sergeant”
Through extensive work with patrol officers and patrol sergeants in a
large urban police department, Van Maanen (1983, 1985) identified two
distinct types of patrol sergeants - the “station house sergeant” and the
“street sergeant.” The first type, identified as the “station house sergeant,”
personified the characteristics common to the transactional leadership
style. Station house sergeants spent the majority of their time in the
station, dealing with administrative issues such as processing paperwork.
Rarely did they directly supervise their subordinates in the field. They
preferred to control officer behavior through their authority to grant favors
such as days off, choice assignments, and the ability to earn overtime pay.
Van Maanen (1985) found that if given a choice, patrol officers preferred to
work for the station house type of sergeant. This was because they had less
direct supervision, more opportunities to conduct personal business on
duty, and less pressure to be proactive. The second type of sergeant, the
“street sergeant,” personified the characteristics common to the
transformational leadership style and is discussed later in this paper (Van
Maanen, 1983 & 1985 as cited by Johnson, 2006).
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Engel’s Four Supervisory Styles
Studying 322 patrol officers as well as 81 sergeants and lieutenants in
two agencies, Engel (2001) identified four distinct supervisory styles among
patrol supervisors. They were labeled as traditional, innovative, supportive
and active. Three of these supervisory styles, specifically traditional,
innovative and supportive, were variations of the transactional style of
leadership. The traditional style of supervision is characterized by
supervisors who expect their officers to produce measurable outcomes such
as arrests, reports, citations, etc. The traditional supervisors expect
aggressive enforcement from their officers, but expect little relative to
quality of life issues or community policing-related issues. The supervisors
are likely to make the decisions as they took over calls or tell the officers
how to handle their calls. Their main concern is to control subordinate
behavior. The innovative supervisor expects their subordinates to engage in
community oriented policing. They are less concerned with enforcing rules,
report writing or other tasks deemed important by the traditional
supervisors. They excel as mentoring and coaching their subordinates. The
supportive supervisors encourage and praise their officers more and
maintain good relations with them. They may provide a buffer between their
officers and management to protect them from criticism and discipline.
They are more likely to praise their subordinates and are not task oriented
(Engel, 2000 & 2001). Johnson (2006) also classifies these three styles as
variations of the transactional style of leadership.
Leadership Styles 13
Does the Transactional Theory Lend Itself to Increased Employee
Performance?
Transactional leaders achieve compliance from subordinates through
an exchange of rewards for services. For example, transactional leaders will
offer raises or promotions for higher work productivity. The weakness of
this leadership style is that employees are not invested in their work and
once rewards become unavailable, it is difficult to continue to motivate
them (Johnson, 2006).
According to Bass (1985) and House (1996), a transactional approach is
deficient for long-term development, which normally entails significant
individual and organizational change. While many leaders utilize
transactional leadership, they fail to constantly apply this behavior because
of lack of time, inadequate opportunities to observe, ineffective appraisal
systems, doubts about positive reinforcement effectiveness, and lack of
skills. The negative aspects of leadership behaviors are associated with
transactional leadership. One of the most interesting findings of a study of
480 senior Australian law enforcement officers was the prevalence of the
transactional theory’s management-by-exception over other leadership
behaviors. The significantly higher level of management-by-exception
indicates that leaders of senior officers are mainly passive and focus on
correcting deviations from the status quo. Several previous perceptions of
Leadership Styles 14
police leadership support this finding, such as police leaders being “after
the fact supervisors.” It is suggested that high levels of transactional
leadership indicate only basic leadership competency among leaders.
Therefore, in the Australian law enforcement study, it appears that leaders
only demonstrate basic leadership capabilities, which may reflect the lack of
formal leadership training. Despite the shortcomings of transactional
leadership which prevailed in this law enforcement environment, the
findings amazingly indicated a relatively high level of follower satisfaction
with this leadership behavior. As the author noted, the relatively high
follower satisfaction level with such a negative form of leadership behavior
was surprising and requires further investigation (Densten, 1999).
Under Van Maanen’s “Station House Sergeant vs. Street Sergeant”
theory, the patrol officers of the “Station House Sergeant” (i.e., the
transactional leader) were significantly less productive and less compliant
with rules and directives than employees of the “Street Sergeant” (i.e., the
transformational leader) (Van Maanen, 1983 & 1985 as cited by Johnson,
2005).
Under Engel’s (2001) four supervisory styles theory, all of Engel’s
(2001) leadership styles influenced subordinates to some degree. The three
leadership styles that were classified as variations of transactional
leadership, specifically traditional, innovative, and supportive leadership
styles, were found to have limited influence (Johnson, 2006). In fact, Engel
Leadership Styles 15
(2000 & 2001) suggests the active supervisor (the transformational style of
leadership) has the most influence over their subordinates’ behavior.
IV. Transformational Theory of Leadership
Transformational leadership is the leader’s ability to motivate followers
to rise above their own personal goals for the greater good of the
organization (Bass, 1985, 1996 as cited by Murphy & Drodge, 2004). Bass
(1985) theorized the transformational style of leadership comes from deeply
held personal values which cannot be negotiated and appeals to the
subordinates’ sense of moral obligation and values (as cited by Chan, 2005).
“Transformational leaders go beyond transactional leadership and are
characterized as visionary, articulate, assured, and able to engender
confidence in others so as to motivate them to surpass their usual
performance goals” (Schwarzwald, Koslowsky and Agassi, 2001, p 277).
The transformational leaders attempt to stimulate the undeveloped or
dormant needs of their subordinates (Chan, 2005). Bass declared there
were four types of transformational leadership behavior, namely idealized
influence (charisma), inspirational motivation, individualized consideration,
and intellectual stimulation (Densten, 1999).
Idealized influence represents role-modeling behavior where
the leader instills pride, faith, and respect, and has a gift for
seeing what is really important, and transmits a sense of
mission. Inspirational motivation represents the use of images
Leadership Styles 16
and symbols that enable the leader to raise the expectations
and beliefs of their follower concerning the mission and vision.
Individualized consideration represents providing experiential
learning and occurs when the leader delegates a project,
provides coaching and teaching, and treats each follower as an
individual. Intellectual stimulation represents cognitive
development of the follower and occurs when the leader
arouses followers to think in new ways and emphasizes
problem solving and the use of reasoning before taking action
(Johnson, 2006).
Transformational leaders encourage their subordinates to bring
creative viewpoints to work and stimulate a team vision through positive
motivation. With regards to the law enforcement arena, the
transformational leader expects their subordinates to be more occupied
with problem solving and community-oriented policing which more often
than not equate to lower statistics. (Engel, 2003). Transformational leaders
are expected to enhance the performance capacity of their followers by
setting higher expectations and generating a greater willingness to address
more difficult challenges (Bass and Avolio, 1997). Transformational leaders
continuously show concern for their subordinates’ needs, treat them with
respect and utilize a flexible approach towards them. This does not
necessarily mean that the transformational leader never resorts to
punishment or negative feedback. When these behaviors are used, they are
Leadership Styles 17
perceived or may be interpreted as exceptional and required for completing
the present task (Schwarzwald, Koslowsky, Agassi, 2001).
Transformational leadership behaviors alter the higher order needs of
followers by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and values. Such behaviors
are important to the leaders of senior police officers because they can
directly influence rank-and-file officers and any process of change.
Transformational leadership involves raising the consciousness of followers
by appealing to higher ideals and values, and moving the focus of followers
away from their self-interests encouraged by transactional leadership. In
other words, the leader encourages their followers to consider their actions
beyond simply “what is in it for them.” The transformational leader
motivates subordinates by focusing them on a greater cause, such as
justice. Burns (1978) argued that transformational leaders have a more
significant motivating effect on employees and are preferable to
transactional leaders because they motivate employees to perform well even
in situations that lack any chance of receiving formal recognition.
Chan (2005) reports that over the last few decades, organizations have
had relatively significant success with various kinds of transformational
leadership models. A leading example is the Kouzes and Posner’s (2003)
model which offered a leadership model with five distinct practices that
outstanding leaders use to influence employees’ performance. This model
consists of some of the key elements of the transformational leadership
styles. The five practices of exemplary leadership are: (a) challenging the
Leadership Styles 18
process: searching and seizing challenging opportunities to change, grow,
innovate, and improve, with the willingness to take risks and learn from
mistakes; (b) inspiring a shared vision: enlisting followers’ support in a
shared vision by appealing to the followers’ values, interests, and
aspirations; (c) enabling others to act: achieving common goals by building
mutual trust, empowering followers, developing competence, assigning
critical tasks, and providing continuous support; (d) modeling the way:
being a role model and being consistent with shared values; and (e)
encouraging the heart: providing recognition for success and celebrating
accomplishments.
Van Maanen’s “Station House Sergeant” vs. “Street Sergeant”
As mentioned previously, Van Maanen (1983, 1985) identified two
distinct types of patrol sergeants. The first was the “station house
sergeant” who personified the transactional leadership style. Van Maanen’s
second type of patrol sergeants, which he called the “street sergeants”,
personified the transformational leadership style. They spent the majority
of their time in the field directly supervising officers or engaging in patrol
work of their own. Street sergeants held characteristics similar to the
transformational leadership style through their direct support of officers in
the field and their leading by example. Officers who worked under the street
sergeant types of supervisors experienced more direct supervision, fewer
opportunities to conduct personal business or engage in loafing, and were
Leadership Styles 19
under constant pressure to produce outputs through proactive stops and
patrols (Van Maanen 1983 & 1985 as cited by Johnson, 2006).
Engel’s Four Supervisory Styles
Engel (2001) identified four distinct supervisory styles among patrol
supervisors and they were labeled as traditional, innovative, supportive and
active. As pointed out previously, the first three of these supervisory styles,
were classified as variations of the transactional style of leadership. The
fourth leadership style labeled as active was found to have the qualities of a
transformational leader. These active style supervisors, much like Van
Maanen’s (1983, 1985) street sergeants, spent most of their time in the field
backing up officers on calls and engaging in their own proactive patrol
work. They directly supervised officers in the field, engaged in high levels of
proactive enforcement and problem-solving activities, and expected their
subordinates to do the same.
Murphy & Drodge’s Study of RCMP Detachment
Murphy and Drodge (2003) studied the leadership style of a Royal
Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) detachment consisting of 28 police
officers. The overall leadership style was described as transformational
leadership in which the four I’s of transformation leadership, namely
individualized consideration, idealized influence, inspirational motivation
and intellectual stimulation, were clearly present. The study found an
essential component of the individualized consideration was to make certain
the correct personnel are placed in positions in which they have a strong
Leadership Styles 20
interest. It was also discovered that rewarding achievements were
important as well as providing the tools necessary to perform their jobs.
The authors found that a high degree of idealized influence existed in the
detachment as the leaders had proved themselves through knowledge and
deed in order to gain the respect of the officers. Furthermore, the leaders
understood the need for a command and control style of management that
was balanced with flexibility and empowerment. A key ingredient of
inspirational motivation, communicating the vision to all officers and
repeating it often, was evident among the detachment. This is essential to
leading the subordinates to achieve more that they originally expected to
accomplish. Intellectual stimulation was also found to be prevalent by the
authors as the leaders of the detachment were focused on continuous
employee development.
Does the Transformational Theory Lend Itself to Increased Employee
Performance?
Lowe and Kroeck (1996) reported transformational leadership has been
shown to have a positive relationship on follower performance. Another
finding that was particularly noteworthy was their conclusion
transformational leadership is more highly associated with effectiveness
than transactional leadership. Their tests also suggest that leader behavior
may be more important at lower organizational levels than has been
Leadership Styles 21
generally assumed by those who view transformational leadership as
primarily a means to be utilized only by senior management. It should be
noted the authors also reported that transactional leadership is a necessary
component of effective management.
Bass and his colleagues found that although both transactional and
transformational leadership styles may both have positive effects,
transformational leadership, particularly the charisma component, had the
highest association with positive outcomes. This has been demonstrated
with various criteria including performance level, job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and citizenship behavior (Schwarzwald,
Koslowsky and Agassi, 2001).
Trust is a critical element in the successful implementation of
transformational leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1990; Kouzes & Posner, 2003
as cited by Chan, 2005). Research has provided confirmation that trust in
superiors and influence of superiors are predictors of job performance and
job satisfaction (Goris, Vaught, and Pettit, 2003 as cited by Chan, 2005).
Research also found that found that trust affects job satisfaction and job
performance (Cunningham and MacGregor, 2000 as cited by Chan, 2005).
Previous research has associated trust in leaders with job satisfaction, job
performance, and innovative behavior (Simmons, Nelson, & Neal, 2001; Tan
& Tan, 2000 as cited by Chan, 2005).
Van Maanen found that officers preferred to work for a station house
sergeant but the majority of patrol officers had more respect for the street
Leadership Styles 22
sergeant because of this type of supervisor’s willingness to back them up on
calls and engage in pro-active patrol work. He also found that patrol officer
productivity and compliance with rules and directives was significantly
higher when working for a street sergeant than with a station house
sergeant, suggesting support for the effectiveness of transformational style
leadership (Van Maanen, 1983 & 1985 as cited by Johnson, 2005). Van
Maanen (1983, p. 298 as cited by Engel, 2000) described the street
sergeant as being “both admired and feared by their men” and therefore
more likely to influence their subordinates’ behavior.
Under Engel’s (2001) four supervisory styles theory, all four styles
influenced subordinates to some degree but the only leadership style that
was classified as a type of transformational leadership, specifically the
active leadership style, was the most powerful motivator for the leader’s
police officers. Patrol officers who worked for active style supervisors were
found to be significantly more likely to engage in proactive enforcement
activity (including traffic stops) and community problem solving than patrol
officers working for the other types of supervisors. Again, this evidence
speaks to the effectiveness of the transformational leadership style
(Johnson, 2006). Engel asserts the active supervisory style has a significant
influence on the increased likelihood of patrol officer’s use of force. This
discovery that officers with active supervisors are more likely to use force is
consistent with the hypothesis that supervisors with stronger supervisory
styles would be more likely to sway their subordinates’ behavior. Given that
Leadership Styles 23
active supervisors are in the field with their subordinates more and have
expectations of aggressive law enforcement, it is only logical when it was
determined active supervisors personally have a higher level of use of force
than other leadership styles. It may seem to the subordinates that
aggressive tactics may be tolerated and perhaps, even expected, by their
supervisor with active leadership styles. The author also indicates these
officers have higher arrest rates which may partially explain the higher rate
of use of force. Additionally, the officers with active supervisors spend
much more time in self-initiated, problem-solving and community-oriented
activities. Therefore Engels (2000 & 2001) concludes these findings
suggest the active supervisors (i.e., the transformational leader) have the
most influence over their patrol officers’ behavior.
Murphy and Drudge (2004) conclude that training for transformational
leadership is possible and can have positive impact on organizations. A key
is teaching leadership skills early in the leaders’ careers and to be a
continuous work in progress. Additionally, it was noted the enhanced
commitment to the organizational and increased performance were
observed in subordinates after transformational leadership training. The
authors assert transformation leadership theory is a useful model in policing
leadership.
Boerner, Eisenbeiss and Griesser (2007) stated a positive relationship
exists between transformational leadership and organizational performance
as documented in previous studies. They hypothesized that
Leadership Styles 24
transformational leaders increase their followers’ performance and enhance
followers’ innovation. They also hypothesized the same would not hold true
for transactional leaders. In their study of 91 leaders in 91 German
companies, their hypotheses were confirmed.
In a series of studies, Bass (1985) discovered subordinates’ satisfaction
and effectiveness ratings had higher correlations with the leader’s
transformational behavior ratings than with transactional behavior ratings.
Bass also differentiated between mechanistic organizations and organic
organizations. In mechanistic organizations, the structure is rigid and
formal; conformity rather than innovation is the norm. In organic
organizations, the structure and goals are flexible, members are educated
and innovative, and the climate is warm and trusting. Bass speculated
transactional leadership is more likely to be utilized in mechanistic
organizations and police forces are prime examples of mechanistic
organizations. Police forces have centralized authority, set career paths
and evaluations and utilize a hierarchical rank structure. Therefore, based
on Bass’ speculation, police forces’ leadership styles should exhibit more
transactional than transformational. Sixty New Zealand police officers were
studied by Singer and Singer (2001). It was discovered the actual leader
behavior was significantly more transformational than transactional.
Additionally, the officers had a preference for transformational leadership
style over the transactional style. The researcher’s results gave broad
Leadership Styles 25
supports to the hypothesis that transformational leadership style is
associated with higher level of subordinates’ satisfaction.
Another study conducted by Bass, Avolio, Jung, and Berson (2003) was
to examine how transactional and transformational leadership predicted
performance in U.S Army units operating under conditions of high levels of
uncertainty, challenge, and stress. Leadership ratings were compiled from
72 U.S. Army platoons during normal operational assignments. These
leadership ratings were then used to predict the performance of the platoon
units operating in a 2-week simulation that was designed to test the unit’s
performance effectiveness under high levels of stress and uncertainty in
order to evaluate platoon performance in near-combat conditions. Results
show that the platoon leaders’ transformational and transactional
leadership each had positive and direct relationships with platoon
performance. The researchers reported it seemed fair to say that it took
both active transactional and transformational leadership to be successful
in this performance context.
In a study of 252 MBA students, transformational leadership was
associated with a higher level of team cohesiveness as compared to
transactional leadership. Both knowledge level and team cohesiveness
predict team performance, particularly among men. From the overall
results, it appears that team cohesiveness and knowledge were significant
predictors of team performance. Also, as expected, transformational
Leadership Styles 26
leadership style was associated with higher levels of team cohesiveness
(Stashevsky and Koslowsky, 2006).
Masi and Cooke (2000) conducted a study of approximately 2,500 U.S.
Army personnel and found strong correlation between transformational
leadership and motivation, but weak correlation between transactional
leadership and commitment towards the achievement of organizational
outcomes. The study strongly supports that transformational leaders
empower and motivate their subordinates, while transactional leaders
suppress both commitment and productivity.
It was particularly noteworthy that Silvestri (2007) stated the
importance of a transformational style for the police organization should not
be underestimated. The past decade has witnessed a renewed interest in
the role of the police leader as supported by Britain’s creation of the
National Police Leadership Faculty and the Police Leadership Development
Board (PDLP) in 2001. The PDLP has already endorsed the need for
transformational leadership throughout the service and has commissioned
learning and development packages for its chief officers, which take into
account the principles of transformational leadership. While there are few
studies that show tangible evidence of the effects of a transformational
leadership style for the police organization, Dobby and Tuffin’s (2004)
recent work does provide some provisional evidence of the benefits of a
‘‘transformational approach” for improving police performance. Police
leaders who displayed ‘‘transformational behaviors” in their study were
Leadership Styles 27
found to have a wide a range of positive effects on their subordinates’
attitudes to their work as well as increasing both their job satisfaction and
their commitment to the organization. Densten (1999) also emphasizes the
potential of a transformational approach with its capacity to ‘‘alter the
higher order needs of followers by changing their attitudes, beliefs and
values’’ (p. 46). He goes on to stress that such behaviors are important to
police leaders as they ‘‘can directly influence rank and file officers and any
process of change. In short, the message is clear; masters of the use of
participatory styles are also the masters of change” (p. 46).
Bass (1985) asserted that transformational leadership is more likely to
appear in organizations where members are highly educated and
innovative, goals and structures are unclear, but warmth and trust are high;
while transactional leadership is most likely appear in organizations where
goals and structures are specific and where members’ work are extremely
well-defined. Bass (1990) theorized that transformational leaders are role
models, admired, respected, trusted, confident, determined, persistent,
highly competent, innovative, and willing to take risks. He added that
transformational leaders also inspire their followers through coaching,
mentoring, support, encouragement, and challenge (as cited by Chan 2005).
By this explanation by Bass, law enforcement agencies would more likely
make use of the transactional leadership style rather than transformational
leadership style. This is particularly interesting due to other researchers
Leadership Styles 28
emphasizing or highly suggesting that law enforcement agencies would
benefit by utilizing the transformational theory of leadership.
V. Conclusion
Surveys of job satisfaction from the 1920s onward have uniformly
reported that leaders can make a difference in their subordinates’
satisfaction and performance. Employees’ favorable attitudes toward their
leaders had been reported as a contributor to their job satisfaction as well
as directly related to the productivity of work groups (Bass, 1990 as cited by
Chan, 2005). What leadership style should law enforcement leaders employ
to maximize followers’ job performance? Although there is a lack of
agreement in the reviewed literature, there appears to be growing support
in one theory.
A review of the literature suggests that parts of the contingency theory
of leadership underlying groundwork is flawed and based on assumptions.
It was also noted that despite the wide use of the Situational Leadership
Model (SLM) by Hersey and Blanchard (1977), most studies have been
critical of the theory. In fact, some studies have shown a lower job
performance by followers of the leaders utilizing the SLM.
Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson (2003) reported previous research has
shown transactional contingent reward style of leadership to be positively
related to followers’ commitment, satisfaction, and performance. In
Leadership Styles 29
contrast, the transactional management-by-exception style of leadership is
associated with the negative aspects of leadership behavior. While there
are positive aspects of the transactional theory, it has shown to have
inherent weaknesses. Additionally, the theory maybe deficient in the long-
term in that it does not readily avail itself to allow for change which is
increasingly important in today’s climate.
Densten (1999) asserts that to meet the demands of modern
organizations, especially criminal justice agencies, the managers must
implement more humanistic and principle-based styles of leadership. To
respond to these demands, the researcher believes that there is a need for
the law enforcement managers to apply transformational leadership to their
agencies. The traditional style of management resting upon strict
managerial rules needs to be transformed by a new process based on
diverse skills, interests, and attitudes. This form of transformational
leadership can be a valuable tool to help reform management within police
agencies. With a better understanding of the needs and aspirations of
police employees, transformational leadership can turn traditional police
managers into effective and valuable leaders. Such a change can make
police chiefs more competent and better equipped to handle policing in a
complex and rapidly changing society.
As a result of global technological and social alteration,
transformational leadership became necessary for both private and public
agencies, particularly for those in paramilitary structures, such as police
Leadership Styles 30
agencies, because interactions between supervisors and subordinates are
more crucial than ever (Ozmen, 2009). Bono and Judge (2003) concluded
that transformational leaders could influence how followers perceive their
work activities and that these perceptions resulted in an increase in the
followers’ job satisfaction, commitment, and performance. Whether called
active, street sergeants, etc., strong indications are that transformational
leaders affect their subordinates’ behavior and effectiveness more (Johnson,
2006).
In contrast to other researchers, Engel concedes none of the four
supervisory styles indentified in her research should be consider the ideal
standard for police supervision. It should be noted the three of Engel’s
styles identified in her research are transactional and one is
transformational. There are pros and cons associated with each style. The
appropriate style of leadership for departments would differ depending on
the agency’s organizational goals (Engel, 2001). This assessment is
supported by Conger (2004) who argued that transformational leadership is
a principally normative model, which takes a single approach to practicing
leadership across levels but it does not considering situational
contingencies (as cited by Chan, 2005). The study by Bass, Avolio, Jung,
and Berson (2003) of 72 U.S. Army platoon’ performance in near-combat
conditions illustrated the platoon leaders’ transformational and
transactional leadership each had positive and direct relationships with
platoon performance.
Leadership Styles 31
Therefore this paper concludes there is a sufficient quantity of
information which suggests the flawed contingency theory has lost
popularity with practitioners as well as theorists. Transactional theory is to
some extent effective but not necessarily the optimal theory.
Transformational theory is the foremost leadership theory to optimize job
performance at this point of time. But there is some evidence in studies
that hint that a blend of transactional and transformational theories of
leadership may be the style of leadership to be examined further to optimize
job performance, especially in military and para-military organizations such
as law enforcement agencies.
Leadership Styles 32
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