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The prominent impact crater Tycho on the Moon.
Fresh impact crater on Mars showing
a prominent ray system of ejecta.
This 30 m (98 ft) diameter crater
formed between July 2010 and May
2012 (19 November 2013;
).[1]
Impact craterFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An impact crater is an approximately circular
depression in the surface of a planet, moon or other
solid body in the Solar System, formed by the
hypervelocity impact of a smaller body with the
surface. In contrast to volcanic craters, which result
from explosion or internal collapse,[2] impact craters
typically have raised rims and floors that are lower in
elevation than the surrounding terr ain.[3] Impact craters
range from small, simple, bowl-shaped depressions to
large, complex, multi-ringed impact basins. Meteor
Crater is perhaps the best-known example of a small
impact crater on the Earth.
Impact craters are the dominant geographic features onmany solid Solar System objects including the Moon,
Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede and most small moons
and asteroids. On other planets and moons that
experience mor e active sur f ace geological processes,
such as Earth, Venus, Mars, Europa, Io and Titan,
visible impact craters are less common because they
become eroded, buried or transformed by tectonics over
time. Where such processes have destroyed most of the
original crater topography, the terms impact structure or astrobleme
are more commonly used. In early literature, before the significanceof im pact cratering was widely recognised, the terms
cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to
describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on
Earth.[4]
The cratering records of very old surfaces, such as Mercury, the
Moon, and the southern highlands of Mars, record a period of
intense early bombardment in the inner Solar System around 3.9
billion years ago. Since that time, the rate of crater production on
Earth has been considerably lower, but it is appreciable nonetheless;Earth experiences from one to three impacts large enough to
produce a 20 km diameter crater about once every million years on
average.[5][6] This indicates that there should be far more relatively
oung craters on the planet than have been discovered so far. The
cratering rate in the inner solar system fluctuates as a consequence of collisions in the asteroid belt that
create a family of fragments that are often sent cascading into the inner solar system.[7] Formed in a
collision 160 million years ago, the Baptistina family of asteroids is thought to have caused a large spike in
3.7°N 53.4°E
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the impact rate, perhaps causing the Chicxulub impact that may have triggered the extinction of the
dinosaurs 66 million years ago.[7] Note that the rate of impact cratering in the outer Solar System could be
different from the inner Solar System.[8]
Although the Earth’s active surface processes quickly destroy the impact record, about 170 terrestrial
impact craters have been identified.[9] These range in diameter from a few tens of meters up to about
300 km, and they range in age from recent times (e.g. the Sikhote-Alin craters in Russia whose creation
were witnessed in 1947) to more than two billion years, though most are less than 500 million years old because geological processes tend to obliterate older craters. They are also selectively found in the stable
interior regions of continents.[10] Few undersea craters have been discovered because of the difficulty of
surveying the sea floor, the rapid rate of change of the ocean bottom, and the subduction of the ocean floor
into the Earth's interior by processes of plate tectonics.
Impact craters are not to be confused with landforms that in some cases appear similar, including calderas
and ring dikes.
Contents
1 History
2 Crater formation
2.1 Contact and compression
2.2 Excavation
2.3 Modification and collapse
3 Identifying impact craters
4 Lists of craters
4.1 Impact craters on Earth
4.2 Some extraterrestrial craters
4.3 Largest named craters in the Solar System
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History
Daniel Barringer (1860–1929) was one of the first to identify an impact crater, Meteor Crater in Arizona; t
crater specialists the site is referred to as Barringer Crater in his honor. Initially Barringer's ideas were not
widely accepted, and even when the origin of Meteor Crater was finally acknowledged, the wider
implications for impact cratering as a significant geological process on Earth were not.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor_Craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizonahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cratonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhote-Alin_Meteoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicxulub_impacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calderahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barringer_Craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_dikehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Barringer_(geologist)
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Eugene Shoemaker, pioneer impact
crater researcher, here at a
crystallographic microscope used to
examine meteorites
A laboratory simulation of an impact
event and crater formation
In the 1920s, the American geologist Walter H. Bucher studied a number of sites now recognized as impac
craters in the USA. He concluded they had been created by some great explosive event, but believed that
this force was probably volcanic in origin. However, in 1936, the geologists John D. Boon and Claude C.
Albritton Jr. revisited Bucher's studies and concluded that the craters that he studied were probably formed
by impacts.
The concept of impact cratering remained more or less speculative
until the 1960s. At this time a number of researchers, most notably
Eugene M. Shoemaker, (co-discoverer of the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9), conducted detailed studies of a number of craters and
recognized clear evidence that they had been created by impacts,
specifically identifying the shock-metamorphic effects uniquely
associated with impact events, of which the most familiar is shocke
quartz.
Armed with the knowledge of shock-metamorphic features, Carlyle
S. Beals and colleagues at the Dominion Observatory in Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada and Wolf von Engelhardt of the
University of Tübingen in Germany began a methodical search for impact craters. By 1970, they had tentatively identified more than
50. Although their work was controversial, the American Apollo
Moon landings, which were in progress at the time, provided
supportive evidence by recognizing the rate of impact cratering on
the Moon.[11] Processes of erosion on the Moon are minimal and so
craters persist almost indefinitely. Since the Earth could be expected to have roughly the same cratering ra
as the Moon, it became clear that the Earth had suffered far more impacts than could be seen by counting
evident craters.
Crater formation
Impact cratering involves high velocity collisions between solid
objects, typically much greater than the velocity of sound in those
objects. Such hyper-velocity impacts produce physical effects such
as melting and vaporization that do not occur in familiar sub-sonic
collisions. On Earth, ignoring the slowing effects of travel through
the atmosphere, the lowest impact velocity with an object from
space is equal to the gravitational escape velocity of about 11 km/s.
The fastest impacts occur at more than 80 km/s in the "worst case"scenario which an object in a retrograde near-parabolic orbit hits
Earth. (Because kinetic energy scales as velocity squared, Earth's
gravity only contributes 1 km/s to this figure, not 11 km/s). The
median impact velocity on Earth is about 20 to 25 km/s.
Impacts at these high speeds produce shock waves in solid materials, and both impactor and the material
impacted are rapidly compressed to high density. Following initial compression, the high-density, over-
compressed region rapidly depressurizes, exploding violently, to set in train the sequence of events that
produces the impact crater. Impact-crater formation is therefore more closely analogous to cratering by hig
explosives than by mechanical displacement. Indeed, the energy density of some material involved in the
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_D._Boon_(geologist)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria,_British_Columbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shocked_quartzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_von_Engelhardthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_velocityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_M._Shoemakerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_H._Bucherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlyle_S._Bealshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Claude_C._Albritton_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_metamorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eugene_Shoemaker.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoemaker-Levy_9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_soundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meltinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program
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Herschel Crater on Saturn's moon
Mimas
Contact, compression, decompression, and the passage of the shock wave all occur within a few tenths of a
second for a large impact. The subsequent excavation of the crater occurs more slowly, and during this
stage the flow of material is largely sub-sonic. During excavation, the crater grows as the accelerated targe
material moves away from the impact point. The target's motion is initially downwards and outwards, but i
becomes outwards and upwards. The flow initially produces an approximately hemispherical cavity. The
cavity continues to grow, eventually producing a paraboloid (bowl-shaped) crater in which the centre has
been pushed down, a significant volume of material has been ejected, and a topographically elevated crate
rim has been pushed up. When this cavity has reached its maximum size, it is called the transient cavity.
[12
The depth of the transient cavity is typically a quarter to a third of
its diameter. Ejecta thrown out of the crater do not include material
excavated from the full depth of the transient cavity; typically the
depth of maximum excavation is only about a third of the total
depth. As a result, about one third of the volume of the transient
crater is formed by the ejection of material, and the remaining two
thirds is formed by the displacement of material downwards,
outwards and upwards, to form the elevated rim. For impacts into
highly porous materials, a significant crater volume may also be
formed by the permanent compaction of the pore space. Such
compaction craters may be important on many asteroids, comets and
small moons.
In large impacts, as well as material displaced and ejected to form
the crater, significant volumes of target material may be melted and
vaporized together with the original impactor. Some of this impact
melt rock may be ejected, but most of it remains within the transient crater, initially forming a layer of
impact melt coating the interior of the transient cavity. In contrast, the hot dense vaporized material
expands rapidly out of the growing cavity, carrying some solid and molten material within it as it does so.
As this hot vapor cloud expands, it rises and cools much like the archetypal mushroom cloud generated bylarge nuclear explosions. In large impacts, the expanding vapor cloud may rise to many times the scale
height of the atmosphere, effectively expanding into free space.
Most material ejected from the crater is deposited within a few crater radii, but a small fraction may travel
large distances at high velocity, and in large impacts it may exceed escape velocity and leave the impacted
planet or moon entirely. The majority of the fastest material is ejected from close to the center of impact,
and the slowest material is ejected close to the rim at low velocities to form an overturned coherent flap of
ejecta immediately outside the rim. As ejecta escapes from the growing crater, it forms an expanding
curtain in the shape of an inverted cone; the trajectory of individual particles within the curtain is thought t
be largely ballistic.
Small volumes of un-melted and relatively un-shocked material may be spalled at very high relative
velocities from the surface of the target and from the rear of the impactor. Spalling provides a potential
mechanism whereby material may be ejected into inter-planetary space largely undamaged, and whereby
small volumes of the impactor may be preserved undamaged even in large impacts. Small volumes of high
speed material may also be generated early in the impact by jetting. This occurs when two surfaces
converge rapidly and obliquely at a small angle, and high-temperature highly shocked material is expelled
from the convergence zone with velocities that may be several times larger than the impact velocity.
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Weathering may change the aspect of
a crater drastically. This mound on
Mars' north pole may be the result of
an impact crater that was buried by
sediment and subsequently re-exposed
by erosion.
Multi-ringed impact basin Valhalla
on Jupiter's moon Callisto
Modification and collapse
In most circumstances, the transient cavity is not stable: it collapses
under gravity. In small craters, less than about 4 km diameter on
Earth, there is some limited collapse of the crater rim coupled with
debris sliding down the crater walls and drainage of impact melts
into the deeper cavity. The resultant structure is called a simple
crater, and it remains bowl-shaped and superficially similar to the
transient crater. In simple craters, the original excavation cavity is
overlain by a lens of collapse breccia, ejecta and melt rock, and a
portion of the central crater floor may sometimes be flat.
Above a certain threshold
size, which varies with
planetary gravity, the
collapse and modification of
the transient cavity is much
more extensive, and the
resulting structure is called a
complex crater. The collapse of the transient cavity is driven by
gravity, and involves both the uplift of the central region and the
inward collapse of the rim. The central uplift is not the result of
elastic rebound , which is a process in which a material with elastic
strength attempts to return to its original geometry; rather the collapse is a process in which a material with
little or no strength attempts to return to a state of gravitational equilibrium.
Complex craters have uplifted centers, and they have typically broad flat shallow crater floors, and terraced
walls. At the largest sizes, one or more exterior or interior rings may appear, and the structure may be
labeled an impact basin rather than an impact crater. Complex-crater morphology on rocky planets appearto follow a regular sequence with increasing size: small complex craters with a central topographic peak ar
called central peak craters, for example Tycho; intermediate-sized craters, in which the central peak is
replaced by a ring of peaks, are called peak-ring craters, for example Schrödinger; and the largest craters
contain multiple concentric topographic rings, and are called multi-ringed basins, for example Orientale.
On icy as opposed to rocky bodies, other morphological forms appear which may have central pits rather
than central peaks, and at the largest sizes may contain very many concentric rings – Valhalla on Callisto i
the type example of the latter.
Identifying impact cratersSome volcanic features can resemble impact craters, and brecciated rocks are associated with other
geological formations besides impact craters. Non-explosive volcanic craters can usually be distinguished
from impact craters by their irregular shape and the association of volcanic flows and other volcanic
materials. Impact craters produce melted rocks as well, but usually in smaller volumes with different
characteristics.
The distinctive mark of an impact crater is the presence of rock that has undergone shock-metamorphic
effects, such as shatter cones, melted rocks, and crystal deformations. The problem is that these materials
tend to be deeply buried, at least for simple craters. They tend to be revealed in the uplifted center of a
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Impact crater structure
Barringer Crater (a.k.a. Meteor
Crater) in Arizona was the world's
first confirmed impact crater
Shoemaker Crater (formerly Teague
Ring) in Western Australia was
renamed in memory of Gene
Shoemaker.
complex crater, however.
Impacts produce distinctive shock-metamorphic effects that allow impact sites to be distinctively identified
Such shock-metamorphic effects can include:
A layer of shattered or "brecciated" rock under the floor of the crater. This layer is called a "breccia
lens".
Shatter cones, which are chevron-shaped impressions inrocks. Such cones are formed most easily in fine-grained
rocks.
High-temperature rock types, including laminated and welded
blocks of sand, spherulites and tektites, or glassy spatters of
molten rock. The impact origin of tektites has been questioned
by some researchers; they have observed some volcanic
features in tektites not found in impactites. Tektites are also
drier (contain less water) than typical impactites. While rocks
melted by the impact resemble volcanic rocks, they
incorporate unmelted fragments of bedrock, form unusually
large and unbroken fields, and have a much more mixed
chemical composition than volcanic materials spewed up from
within the Earth. They also may have relatively large amounts
of trace elements that are associated with meteorites, such as
nickel, platinum, iridium, and cobalt. Note: scientific
literature has reported that some "shock" features, such as
small shatter cones, which are often associated only with
impact events, have been found also in terrestrial volcanic
ejecta.
Microscopic pressure deformations of minerals. These include
fracture patterns in crystals of quartz and feldspar, and
formation of high-pressure materials such as diamond,
derived from graphite and other carbon compounds, or
stishovite and coesite, varieties of shocked quartz.
Buried craters can be identified through drill coring, aerial
electromagnetic resistivity imaging, and airborne gravity
gradiometry.[15]
Lists of craters
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shoemaker_Impact_Structure,_Western_Australia.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_metamorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Craterstructure.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shocked_quartzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherulitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatter_conehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stishovitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brecciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barringer_Crater_USGS.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coesite
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Close-up of shatter cones developed
in fine grained dolomite from the
Wells Creek crater, USA.
U.S. Geological Survey aerial
electromagnetic resistivity map of the
Decorah crater.
Impact craters on Earth
On Earth, the recognition of impact craters is a branch of geology, as opposed to astronomy on other
worlds. Out of many proposed craters, relatively few are confirmed. The following are a sample of articles
of confirmed and well-documented impact sites.
List of impact craters on Earth
List of craters on Mercury
List of craters on the Moon
List of craters on Mars
List of craters on Venus
List of geological features on Phobos
List of geological features on Jupiter's smaller moons
List of craters on Europa
List of craters on Ganymede
List of craters on Callisto
List of geological features on Saturn's smaller moons
List of geological features on Mimas
List of geological features on Enceladus
List of geological features on TethysList of geological features on Dione
List of geological features on Rhea
List of geological features on Iapetus
List of geological features on Puck
List of geological features on Miranda
List of geological features on Ariel
List of craters on Umbriel
List of geological features on Titania
List of geological features on Oberon
List of craters on Triton
Barringer Crater, a.k.a. Meteor Crater (Arizona, USA)
Chesapeake Bay impact crater (Virginia, USA)
Chicxulub, Extinction Event Crater (Mexico)
Clearwater Lakes (Quebec, Canada)
Gosses Bluff crater (Northern Territory, Australia)
Haughton impact crater (Nunavut, Canada)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearwater_Lakeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_the_Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Enceladushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosses_Bluff_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicxulub_Craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Geological_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Europahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorah_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_Creek_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Ganymedehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Saturn%27s_smaller_moonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Dionehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Rheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Jupiter%27s_smaller_moonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wells_creek_shatter_cones_2.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Tethyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Oberonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay_impact_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Puckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Umbrielhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Iapetushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haughton_impact_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Arielhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Mimashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Callistohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Tritonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_impact_craters_on_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Mirandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barringer_Craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Venushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon)#Named_geological_featureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Titaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USGS_Decorah_crater.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Mercury
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Unnamed crater in Caloris Basin, photographed by MESSENGER,
2011
See the Earth Impact Database,[16] a website concerned with over 170 scientifically-confirmed impact
craters on Earth.
Some extraterrestrial craters
Caloris Basin (Mercury)
Hellas Basin (Mars)
Mare Orientale (Moon)
Petrarch crater (Mercury)
Skinakas Basin (Mercury)
South Pole – Aitken basin (Moon)
Herschel crater (Mimas)
Largest named craters in the Solar System
1. North Polar Basin/Borealis Basin (disputed) - Mars -
Diameter: 10,600 km
2. South Pole-Aitken basin - Moon - Diameter: 2,500 km
3. Hellas Basin - Mars - Diameter: 2,100 km
4. Caloris Basin - Mercury - Diameter: 1,550 km
Kaali crater (Estonia)
Karakul crater (Tajikistan)
Lonar crater (India)
Manicouagan crater (Quebec, Canada)
Manson crater (Iowa, USA)
Mistastin crater (Labrador, Canada)
Nördlinger Ries (Germany)
Pingualuit crater (Quebec, Canada)
Popigai crater, (Siberia, Russia)
Shoemaker crater (Western Australia, Australia)
The Siljan Ring (Sweden)
Sudbury Basin (Ontario, Canada)
Vredefort crater (South Africa)
Wolfe Creek Crater (Western Australia, Australia)Lake Tai (Jiangsu, China)
Upheaval Dome (Utah, USA)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Impact_Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloris_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unnamed_crater_in_Caloris_Basin.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pole_%E2%80%93_Aitken_basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Taihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel_(Mimantean_crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoemaker_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MESSENGERhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vredefort_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistastin_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinakas_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloris_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Polar_Basin_(Mars)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upheaval_Domehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrarch_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonar_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karakul_(Tajikistan)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pole-Aitken_basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Siljanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manson_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfe_Creek_Craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manicouagan_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingualuit_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare_Orientalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popigai_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaali_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6rdlinger_Ries
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Tirawa crater straddling the
terminator on Rhea, lower right.
5. Imbrium Basin - Moon - Diameter: 1,100 km
6. Isidis Planitia - Mars - Diameter: 1,100 km
7. Mare Tranquilitatis - Moon - Diameter: 870 km
8. Argyre Planitia - Mars - Diameter: 800 km
9. Rembrandt – Mercury – Diameter: 715 km
10. Serenitatis Basin - Moon - Diameter: 700 km
11. Mare Nubium - Moon - Diameter: 700 km
12. Beethoven - Mercury - Diameter: 625 km
13. Valhalla - Callisto - Diameter: 600 km, with rings to 4,000 km
diameter
14. Hertzsprung - Moon - Diameter: 590 km
15. Turgis - Iapetus - Diameter: 580 km
16. Apollo - Moon - Diameter: 540 km
17. Engelier - Iapetus - Diameter: 504 km18. Mamaldi - Rhea - Diameter: 480 km
19. Huygens - Mars - Diameter: 470 km
20. Schiaparelli - Mars - Diameter: 470 km
21. Rheasilvia - 4 Vesta - Diameter: 460 km
22. Gerin - Iapetus - Diameter: 445 km
23. Odysseus - Tethys - Diameter: 445 km
24. Korolev - Moon - Diameter: 430 km
25. Falsaron - Iapetus - Diameter: 424 km
26. Dostoevskij - Mercury - Diameter: 400 km
27. Menrva - Titan - Diameter: 392 km
28. Tolstoj - Mercury - Diameter: 390 km
29. Goethe - Mercury - Diameter: 380 km
30. Malprimis - Iapetus - Diameter: 377 km
31. Tirawa - Rhea - Diameter: 360 km
32. Orientale Basin - Moon - Diameter: 350 km, with rings to 930 km diameter
33. Evander - Dione - Diameter: 350 km
34. Epigeus - Ganymede - Diameter: 343 km
35. Gertrude - Titania - Diameter: 326 km
36. Telemus - Tethys - Diameter: 320 km
37. Asgard - Callisto - Diameter: 300 km, with rings to 1,400 km diameter
38. Vredefort crater - Earth - Diameter: 300 km
39. Powehiwehi - Rhea - Diameter: 271 km
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamaldi_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valhalla_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhea_(moon)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evander_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gerin_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korolev_(lunar_crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gertrude_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dostoevskij_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirawa_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Engelier_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malprimis_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare_Tranquilitatishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiaparelli_(Martian_crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolstoj_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asgard_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huygens_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirawa_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminator_(solar)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare_Orientalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epigeus_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare_Imbriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare_Nubiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vredefort_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethe_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Falsaron_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PIA09819_Tirawa_basin.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare_Serenitatishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheasilviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidis_Planitiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menrva_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argyre_Planitiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beethoven_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telemus_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turgis_(crater)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Powehiwehi_(crater)&action=edit&redlink=1
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40. Mead - Venus - Diameter: 270 km
There are approximately twelve more impact craters/basins larger than 300 km on the Moon, five on
Mercury, and four on Mars.[17] Large basins, some unnamed but mostly smaller than 300 km, can also be
found on Saturn's moons Dione, Rhea and Iapetus.
See also
Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
Impact depth
Impact event
Nemesis (hypothetical star)
Peter H. Schultz
Rampart crater
Ray system
Traces of Catastrophe book from Lunar and Planetary Institute - comprehensive reference on impact
crater science
References
1. Spectacular new Martian impact crater spotted from orbit (http://arstechnica.com/science/2014/02/spectacular-
new-martian-impact-crater-spotted-from-orbit/), Ars Technica, Feb 6 2014.
2. Basaltic Volcanism Study Project. (1981). Basaltic Volcanism on the Terrestrial Planets; Pergamon Press, Inc:
New York, p. 746. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/book/bvtp./1981//0000746.000.html.
3. Consolmagno, G.J.; Schaefer, M.W. (1994). Worlds Apart: A Textbook in Planetary Sciences; Prentice Hall:
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, p.56.
4. French, B.M. (1998). Traces of Catastrophe: A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial
Meteorite Impact Structures; Simthsonian Institution: Washington DC, p. 97.
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/CB-954/CB-954.intro.html.
5. Carr, M.H. (2006) The surface of Mars; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, p. 23.
6. Grieve R.A.; Shoemaker, E.M. (1994). The Record of Past Impacts on Earth in Hazards due to Comets and
Asteroids, T. Gehrels, Ed.; University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ, pp. 417-464.
7. Bottke, WF; Vokrouhlický D Nesvorný D. (2007). "An asteroid breakup 160 Myr ago as the probable source of
the K/T impactor". Nature 449 (7158): 48–53. Bibcode:2007Natur.449...48B
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.449...48B). doi:10.1038/nature06070
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06070). PMID 17805288
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17805288).
8. K. Zahnle et al., Cratering rates in the outer Solar System. Icarus 163, 263 (2003)
9. Grieve, R.A.F.; Cintala, M.J.; Tagle, R. (2007). Planetary Impacts in Encyclopedia of the Solar System, 2nd ed
L-A. McFadden et al. Eds, p. 826.
10. Shoemaker E.M. Shoemaker C.S. 1999 . The Role of Collisions in The New Solar S stem 4th ed. J.K.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mead_(crater)http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06070http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traces_of_Catastrophehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traces_of_Catastrophehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_eventhttp://arstechnica.com/science/2014/02/spectacular-new-martian-impact-crater-spotted-from-orbit/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.449...48Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_H._Schultzhttp://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/book/bvtp./1981//0000746.000.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_and_Planetary_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Technicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttp://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/CB-954/CB-954.intro.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17805288http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rampart_craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_depth
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Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Impact
craters.
Charles A. Wood and Leif Andersson, New Morphometric Data for Fresh Lunar Craters
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/LPSC./0009//0003669.000.html), 1978, Proceedings 9th Lunar and Planet.
Sci. Conf.
Bond, J. W., "The development of central peaks in lunar craters", Earth, Moon, and Planets, vol. 25, December
1981.
Melosh, H.J., 1989, Impact cratering: A geologic process: New York, Oxford University Press, 245 p.
Baier, J., Die Auswurfprodukte des Ries-Impakts, Deutschland , in Documenta Naturae, Vol. 162, 2007. ISBN
978-3-86544-162-1
Further reading
Mark, Kathleen (1987). Meteorite Craters. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-0902-6.
External links
The Geological Survey of Canada Crater database, 172 impact
structures (http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/)
Aerial Explorations of Terrestrial Meteorite Craters
(http://www.ottawa.rasc.ca/articles/odale_chuck/earth_craters/index.html)
Impact Meteor Crater Viewer (http://impact.scaredycatfilms.com/) Google Maps Page with Location
of Meteor Craters around the world
Solarviews: Terrestrial Impact Craters (http://www.solarviews.com/eng/tercrate.htm)
Lunar and Planetary Institute slidshow: contains pictures
(http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/craters/)
Vepriai impact crater (http://www.krateris.eu/)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Impact_crater&oldid=649701339"
Beatty et al., Eds., p. 73.
11. Grieve, R.A.F. (1990) Impact Cratering on the Earth. Scientific American, April 1990, p. 66.
12. Melosh, H.J., 1989, Impact cratering: A geologic process: New York, Oxford University Press, 245 p.
13. 'Key to Giant Space Sponge Revealed' (http://www.space.com/4028-key-giant-space-sponge-revealed.html),
Space.com, 4 July 2007
14. Nested CratersESP_027610_2205 (http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ESP_027610_2205) at HiRISE Operations Cente
University of Arizona15. US Geological Survey. "Iowa Meteorite Crater Confirmed" (http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?
ID=3521). Retrieved 7 March 2013.
16. Impact Cratering on Earth (http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/essay.html)
17. USGS Astrogeology: Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/)
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/LPSC./0009//0003669.000.htmlhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Impact_cratershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8165-0902-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783865441621http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=3521http://www.space.com/4028-key-giant-space-sponge-revealed.htmlhttp://www.krateris.eu/http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ESP_027610_2205http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Arizonahttp://impact.scaredycatfilms.com/http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/essay.htmlhttp://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Impact_crater&oldid=649701339http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/craters/http://www.ottawa.rasc.ca/articles/odale_chuck/earth_craters/index.htmlhttp://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/http://www.solarviews.com/eng/tercrate.htm
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Categories: Impact craters Impact geology Lunar science Depressions (geology)
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