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HDM-4 Road User Effects
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Road User Effects
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NZVOC
COBA
VETO
RTIM
Scandanavian Studies
HDM Study
KenyaCaribbean
Studies
IntermediateBrazil Study
HDM
TRDF Model
MicroBENCOSTVOC
CB-ROADS
NIMPAC VOC
ARFCOMAustralian
Studies
South African Studies
WinfreyClaffey
Red Book
U.K. Studies
•Most models in use draw on HDM-III
•No major RUE studies since HDM-III
•Several studies addressed HDM-III calibration or investigated single components - e.g. fuel
RUE Research
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•Unlimited number of representative vehicles
•Reduced maintenance and repair costs
•Changes to utilization and service life modeling
•Changes to capital, overhead and crew costs
•New fuel consumption model
•New oil consumption model
•Changes to speed prediction model
•Use of mechanistic tire model for all vehicles
Key Changes to HDM-III
![Page 5: HDM-4 Road User Effects. Road User Effects Most models in use draw on HDM-III No major RUE studies since HDM- III Several studies addressed HDM-III calibration](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022103004/56649c725503460f9492463c/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
•Effects of traffic congestion on speed, fuel, tires and maintenance costs
•Non-motorized transport modeling
•Traffic safety impact
•Vehicle emissions impact
New Features in HDM-4
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• Motorcycle• Small Car• Medium Car• Large Car• Light Delivery Vehicle• Light Goods Vehicle• Four Wheel Drive• Light Truck• Medium Truck• Heavy Truck• Articulated Truck• Mini-bus• Light Bus
• Bicycles
• Rickshaw
• Animal Cart
• Pedestrian
Motorized Traffic Non-Motorized Traffic
Representative Vehicles
•Medium Bus•Heavy Bus•Coach
![Page 7: HDM-4 Road User Effects. Road User Effects Most models in use draw on HDM-III No major RUE studies since HDM- III Several studies addressed HDM-III calibration](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022103004/56649c725503460f9492463c/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
• Fuel• Lubricant oil• Tire wear• Crew time• Maintenance labor• Maintenance parts• Depreciation• Interest• Overheads
• Passenger time• Cargo holding time
Vehicle Operating Costs
Time Costs
Accidents Costs
Road User Costs Components
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Roadway and Vehicle Characteristics
Vehicle Speed
Physical Quantities Unit Costs
Road User Costs
Vehicle Speed and Physical Quantities
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Component Quantities per Vehicle-km
Fuel litersLubricant oil litersTire wear # of equivalent new tiresCrew time hoursPassenger time hoursCargo holding time hoursMaintenance labor hoursMaintenance parts % of new vehicle priceDepreciation % of new vehicle priceInterest % of new vehicle price
Physical Quantities
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• VDRIVEu and VDRIVEd = uphill and downhill velocities limited by gradient and used driving power
• VBRAKEu and VBRAKEd = uphill and downhill velocities limited by gradient and used braking power
• VCURVE = velocity limited by curvature
• VROUGH = velocity limited by roughness
• VDESIR = desired velocity under ideal conditions
Free speeds are calculated using a mechanistic/behavioral model and are a minimum of the following constraining velocities.
Free-Flow Speeds Model
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EXP( ^2/2)Vu = --------------------------------------------------------- 1 1/ 1 1/ 1 1/ 1 1/ 1 1/ (------) +(------) +(------) +(------) +(------) VDRIVEu VBRAKEu VCURVE VROUGH VDESIR
EXP( ^2/2) Vd = --------------------------------------------------------- 1 1/ 1 1/ 1 1/ 1 1/ 1 1/ (------) +(------) +(------) +(------) +(------) VDRIVEd VBRAKEd VCURVE VROUGH VDESIR
V = 2 / ( 1/Vu + 1/Vd )
Vu = Free-flow speed uphillVd = Free-flow speed downhillV = Free-flow speed both directions = Sigma Weibull parameter = Beta Weibull parameter
Free-Flow Speeds Model
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0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Roughness (IRI)
Spe
ed (
km/h
r)
Curvature = 25 degrees/kmGradient = - 3.5 %
VBRAKE
VCURVE
VDRIVE
VDESIR
VROUGH
Speed
Free-flow Speed and Roughness
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0
50
100
150
200
250
300
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Gradient (%)
Spe
ed (
km/h
r)
Roughness = 3 IRI m/kmCurvature = 25 degrees/km
VCURVE
VROUGH
VDESIR
VDRIVE
VBRAKE
Speed
Free-flow Speed and Gradient
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0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Curvature (deg/km)
Spe
ed (
km/h
r)
Roughness = 3 IRI m/kmGradient = - 3.5 %
VBRAKE
VROUGH
VDRIVE
VDESIR
VCURVE
Speed
Free-flow Speed and Curvature
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Drive Force
Grade Resistance
Rolling Resistance
Air Resistance
- Driving power- Operating weight- Gradient- Density of air- Aerodynamic drag coef.- Projected frontal area- Tire type- Number of wheels
- Roughness- Texture depth- % time driven on snowcovered roads- % time driven on watercovered roads
VDRIVE
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For uphill travel, VBRAKE is infinite.For downhill travel, VBRAKE is dependent upon lengthof gradient. Once the gradient length exceeds a critical value,the brakes are used to retard the speed.
- Braking power- Operating weight- Gradient- Density of air- Aerodynamic drag coef.- Projected frontal area- Tyre type- Number of wheels
- Roughness- Texture depth- % time driven on snowcovered roads- % time driven on watercovered roads- Number of rise and fallper kilometers
VBRAKE
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VCURVE is calculated as a function of the radius ofcurvature.
VCURVE = a0 * R ^ a1
R = Radius of curvature
R = 180,000/(*max(18/ ,C))
C = Horizontal curvature
a0 and a1 = Regression parameters
VCURVE
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VROUGH is calculated as a function of roughness.
VROUGH = ARVMAX/(a0 * RI)
RI = Roughness
ARVMAX = Maximum average rectified velocity
a0 = Regression coefficient
VROUGH
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VDESIR is calculated as a function of road width, roadsidefriction, non-motorized traffic friction, posted speed limit, and speed enforcement factor.
VDESIR = min (VDESIR0, PLIMIT*ENFAC)
PLIMIT = Posted speed limitENFAC = Speed enforcement factorVDESIR0 = Desired speed in the absence of posted speedlimitVDESIR0 = VDES * XFRI * XNMT * VDESMUL
XFRI, XNMT = Roadside and NMT factorsVDESMUL = Multiplication factorVDES = Base desired speed
VDESIR
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• Calculate Free-Flow Speed for each vehicle type
• Calculate the following for each traffic flow period:Flow in PCSE/hrVehicle operating speed (Speed flow model)Speed change cycle (Acceleration noise)Vehicle operating costsTravel time costs
• Calculate averages for the year
Speeds Computational Logic
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To take into account different levels of traffic congestion at different hours of the day, and on different days of the week and year, HDM-4 considers the number of hours of the year (traffic flow period) for which different hourly flows are applicable.
PeakNext to Peak
Flow Periods
Medium flowNext to LowOvernight
Flow
Number of Hours in the Year
Traffic Flow Periods
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To model the effects of congestion, mixed traffic flow is converted into equivalent standard vehicles. The conversion is based on the concept of ‘passenger car space equivalent’ (PCSE), which accounts only for the relative space taken up by the vehicle, and reflects that HDM-4 takes into account explicitly the speed differences of the various vehicles in the traffic stream.
Motorcycle 0.50 Medium Truck 1.40Small Car 1.00 Heavy Truck 1.60Medium Car 1.00 Articulated Truck 1.80Large Car 1.00 Mini-bus 1.20Light Delivery Vehicle 1.00 Light Bus 1.40Light Goods Vehicle 1.00 Medium Bus 1.50Four Wheel Vehicle 1.00 Heavy Bus 1.60Light Truck 1.30 Coach 1.70
Passenger Car Space Equivalent (PCSE)
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•PCUconsider two factors:
o space occupied by vehicleo speed effects
used in highway capacity calculations
•PCSE (HDM-4)considers only space occupiedspeed effects considered separately
through speed model
Difference Between PCSE and PCU
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Length Gap
Space (m)
PCSE
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To consider reduction in speeds due to congestion, the “three-zone” model is adopted.
Speed (km/hr)
S1
S2
S3
Sult
Qo Qnom QultFlowPCSE/hr
S4
Speed Flow Model
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Road Type Width (m)
Qo/ Qult
Qnom/ Qult
Qult (PCSE/h/lane)
Sult (km/h)
Single Lane Road < 4.0 0.0 0.70 600 10 Intermediate Road 4.0 to 5.5 0.0 0.70 900 20 Two Lane Road 5.5 to 9.0 0.1 0.90 1400 25 Wide Two Lane Road 9.0 to 12.0 0.2 0.90 1600 30 Four Lane Road >12.0 0.4 0.95 2000 40
Qo = the flow below which traffic interactions are negligibleQnom = nominal capacityQult = ultimate capacity for stable flowSnom = speed at nominal capacity (0.85 * minimum free speed)Sult = speed at ultimate capacityS1, S2, S3…. = free flow speeds of different vehicle types
Speed-Flow Model Parameters by Road Type
Speed Flow Model
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Speed (km/hr)
Flowveh/hr
Four Lane
Wide Two Lane
Two Lane
Speed Flow Types
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Roadside Friction
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•Replaced HDM-III Brazil model with one based on ARRB ARFCOM model
•Predicts fuel use as function of power usage
TRACTIVE FORCESRolling, air, inertia, gradeand cornering resistance
ACCESSORIESCooling fan,
power steering,air conditioner,alternator, etc.
INTERNALENGINE
FRICTION
DRIVE - TRAININEFFICIENCIES
TOTAL POWER
ENGINE FUEL EFFICIENCY FACTOR
ESTIMATED FUEL CONSUMPTION
Fuel Model
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•Lower rates of fuel consumption than HDM-III for many vehicles
•Effect of speed on fuel significantly lower for passenger cars
•Considers other factors – e.g. surface texture and type -- on fuel
•Model can be used for congestion analyses
Implications of New Fuel Model
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Effect of Speed on Fuel Consumption
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Speed in km/h
Fue
l Co
nsum
ptio
n in
L/1
00
0km
India-1
India-2
India-3
Caribbean
Kenya
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•3-Zone model predicts as flows increase so do traffic interactions
•As interactions increase so do accelerations and decelerations
•Adopted concept of ‘acceleration noise’ -- the standard deviation of acceleration
Congestion - Fuel Model
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Uncongested
Congested
0
Acceleration in m/s/s
Congestion Modelling
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• Vehicle interaction due to:volume - capacityroadside frictionnon-motorised trafficroad roughnessdriver behaviour & road geometry
• Affects fuel consumption & operating costs
Effects of Speed Fluctuations(Acceleration Noise)
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Vehicle Speed Acceleration Noice in m/s2Class (km/hr) 0.05 0.10 . . 0.70 0.75Car 10 0.0063 0.0701
15 0.0095 0.138620 0.0083 0.1813..
90 0.1092 0.195995 0.1133 0.1877
100 0.1255 0.1890Bus 10
1520.
Truck 1015.
dFUEL Values by Acceleration Noise and Vehicle Speed
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Effects Traffic Interactions on Fuel Consumption
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
0.00
0.15
0.30
0.45
0.60
0.750.90
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
dFUEL
Speed in km/h
Acceleration Noisein m/s/s
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• Tread wearamount of the tread worn due the
mechanism of the tyre coming into contact with the pavement surface
• Carcass wearcombination of fatigue and mechanical
damage to the tyre carcass - affects number of retreads
Tire Consumption
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Factors Influencing Tire Consumption
Rubber
CompositionProperties
Pavement Texture
MicrotextureMacrotexture
Temperature
AirRoadTyre
InterfaceContaminants
WaterDust, MudIce, Snow
Vehicle
Tyre LoadApplied Forc e
Suspension Type
Tyre
Type/ConstructionTread PatternAspect Ratio
Inflation Pressure
Operating Conditions
Traffic InteractionsRoad Alignment
Pavement ConditionDriver Behaviour
Temperature
AirRoadTyre
Energy PerUnit Distance
Tread WearRate Per Unit
of Energy
Tyre Consumption
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10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
0.00
0.15
0.30
0.45
0.60
0.750.90
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
dTYRE
Speed in km/h
Acceleration Noisein m/s/s
Effect of Congestion on Tyre Consumption
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•Usually largest single component of VOC
•In HDM-III user’s had choice of Kenya, Caribbean, India and Brazil models
•All gave significantly different predictions
•Most commonly used Brazil model had complex formulation
•Few studies were found to have calibrated model
Parts and Labor Costs
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0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
Roughness in IRI m/km
Par
ts C
ons
um
ptio
n a
s %
New
Ve
hicl
e P
rice/
100
0 km
.
PC and LDV
MT
HT
AT
HB
HDM-4Cars
HDM-4Buses
HDM-III (Brazil) Parts Consumption
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• Estimated from HDM-III Brazil model• Exponential models converted to linear
models which gave similar predictions from 3 - 10 IRI
• Roughness effects reduced 25% for trucks
• For cars, roughness effects same as for trucks
• For heavy buses, roughness effects reduced further 25%
Parts Model
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Utilisation and Service Life
• HDM-4 has either constant or ‘Optimal Life’ service life
• Utilisation function of hours worked for work vehicles; lifetime kilometreage for private vehicles
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Optimal Life Method
• Proposed by Chesher and Harrison (1987) based upon work by Nash (1974)
• Underlying philosophy is that the service life is influenced by operating conditions, particularly roughness
• Relates life -- and capital costs -- to operating conditions
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Optimal Life Method
Cos
ts p
er y
ear
Vehicle Age in years
Discounted Area = New Vehicle Price
RUN(OL)
Running Costs
OL
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Roughness and Lifetime Utilisation
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Roughness in IRI m/km
Op
tim
al L
ife
as P
erce
nta
ge
of
Bas
elin
e U
tili
sati
on
.
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Constant Service Life
• Equations depend on the percentage of private use:LIFEKM = LIFE x AKM < 50%LIFEKM = S x HRWK x LIFE > 50%
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•Comprised of depreciation and interest costs
•HDM-III used a simple linear model affected by operating conditions through the effects of speed on utilization and service life
•HDM-4 uses ‘Optimal Life’ method or constant life method
Capital Costs
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Depreciation in HDM-4
• Depreciation calculated multiplying the replacement vehicle price by the following equation:
• The replacement vehicle price is reduced by a residual value which can be a function of roughness
• The denominator is the lifetime utilisation which may be constant or predicted with the OL method to be a function of roughness
DEP = LIFEKM
)RVPLTPCT01.0 -1(1000
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15 20 25
Roughness in IRI m/km
Dep
reci
atio
n C
ost
in
Bah
t/km
.
PC LT MT
HT AT LB
MB HB MC
Roughness on Depreciation
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Interest Costs
• Interest costs are the replacement vehicle price multiplied by the following equation:
• Function of speed and hours worked as well as the interest rate
INT = 0.5 0HRWKS
1000
100
AINV
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Oil Consumption
• HDM-III only function of roughness
• Model contains two componentsFuel use due to contaminationFuel use due to operation which is
proportional to fuel use
OIL = OILCONT + OILOPER SFC
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Travel Time Components
• Passenger Working Hours
• Passenger Non-Working Hours
• Crew Hours
S100
PCTWKPAX1000PWH
S100
)PCTWK-100(PAX1000PNH
CH = S100
)PP100(1000
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•HDM-4 does not predict accident rates
•User defines a series of “look-up tables” of accident rates
•The rates are broad, macro descriptions relating accidents to a particular set of road attributesFatal InjuryDamage only
Road Safety
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Accident Groups
• Road type, class, use
• Traffic level
• Geometry, pavement type, ride quality, surface texture, presence of shoulders
• Non-motorised traffic
• Intersection type
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Accident Rates and Exposure
• The accident rate is the number of accidents divided by the exposure
• It is typically expressed in number per 100 million vehicle-km
ACCRATE = ACCYR
EXPOSURE
EXPOSINT = AADT365
106
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South Africa Gravel Road 2 Lane Paved Road
Economic Accidents 230.0 100% Accidents 100.0 100%
Evaluation w Fatality 25.0 11% w Fatality 8.0 8%
Manual w Injury 39.0 17% w Injury 27.0 27%
w Damage 166.0 72% w Damage 65.0 65%
Canada 2 Lane Paved Road 4 Lane Divided Expressway 4 Lane Freeway
British Columbia Accidents 121.0 100% Accidents 93.0 100% Accidents 50.0 100%
Economic w Fatality 1.9 2% w Fatality 1.1 1% w Fatality 0.5 1%
Evaluation w Injury 36.3 30% w Injury 30.0 32% w Injury 16.2 32%
Manual w Damage 82.8 68% w Damage 61.8 67% w Damage 33.4 67%
Number per 100 million vehicle-km
- South Africa: Economic Warrants for Surfacing Roads, 1989, SABITA and CSIR- Canada : The Economic Appraisal of Highway Investment “Guidebook”, 1992, Ministry of Transportation
Accident Rates Examples
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VOC Calibration Procedure (Level 1)
• Vehicle mass & ESAL• Road Capacity & Speed-Flow factors• Vehicle service life• Vehicle Utilisation (Annual KM & Hours)• Desired speed• Vehicle engine power, speed (rpm) &
braking • Tyre characteristics (type, rubber
volume, etc)• Vehicle depreciation• Aerodynamic factors
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Calibration Very Important
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Observed HDM Observed HDM Observed HDM
Cos
t in
cent
s/km
Crew
Interest
Depreciation
Maintenance
Tires
Fuel & Oil
2-Axle Truck 5-Axle Truck 7-Axle Truck
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Non-Motorised Transport (NMT)
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•Travel speed and time
•Wear and tear of some NMT vehicles and components
•Degree of conflicts with MT traffic
•Accident rates
•Energy consumption
NMT User Costs and Benefits
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Factors which influence NMT Speed
• MT traffic volume and speed
• NMT traffic volume
• roadside activities
• roadway grade
• rolling resistance
• inclement weather
• road width (where NMT can travel safely) and/or number of lanes
• method of separating NMT/MT traffic
• roughness of road surface
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NMT Speed Model
VSk = f (VDESk, VROUGHk, VGRADk)
Desired speed (VDES) Speed limited by road surface roughness
(VROUGH) Speed limited by road gradient (VGRAD)
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NMT Time and Operating Cost
• Components:Time-Related Cost: f(speed)Standing Cost: f(capital cost, average life,
utilisation, interest charge)Repair and Maintenance Cost: f(IRI, NMT age and utilisation)
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NMT Speeds (km/h)
Road Gradient Effects, IRI = 4 m/kmFlat Hilly
NMT type Terrain TerrainBicycles 18.0 5.4Rickshaws 15.8 2.8Animal Carts 3.3 2.0Pedestrians 4.4 2.3
Road Surface Roughness Effects, RF = 10 m/kmRoughness Roughness
NMT Type 3 IRI 13 IRIBicycles 18.83 10.73Rickshaws 16.47 9.38Animal Carts 3.43 2.13Pedestrians 4.59 2.87
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NMT Time and Operating Costs ($/km)
NMT Type Bituminous Gravel Earth
Bicycles Rickshaws Animal Carts Pedestrians
0.047 0.055 0.273 0.096
0.051 0.060 0.280 0.096
0.049 0.058 0.277 0.096
Pavement Type Effects, IRI = 4 m/km, RF=10 m/km
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Impact of NMT on MT
• MT Speedmodelled using the “side friction”
or speed reduction factor (XNMT)XNMT value is used in the Free
Speed model
• MT Operating Costsmodelled using “acceleration
effects” or speed-change cycles (acceleration noise)
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•Environmental effects:
Emissions (hydrocarbons, NOx, ...)Energy balanceNoise (forthcoming)
•Quantities computed but not included on the economic evaluation
Environment Models
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•Developed by VTI in Sweden
•Conducted statistical analysis of emissions as function of fuel use
•Developed simple linear model
•Model will be changed in future
Emission Models
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Estimate quantities of pollutants produced as a function of:
Road characteristics Traffic
volume/congestion Vehicle technology Fuel consumption
Hydrocarbon Carbon
monoxide Nitrous oxides Sulphur dioxide Carbon dioxide Particulates Lead
Emissions Model
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•Compares total life-cycle energy consumption of different transport policies
•Three energy use categories:Motorised vehiclesNon-motorised vehiclesRoad construction and maintenance
Energy Balance Analysis
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•Total energy consumption
•Total consumption of renewable and non-renewable energy
•Total national and global energy use
•Specific energy consumption (per km)
Energy Analysis Output
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HDM Series – Volume 4