Download - Groups and Teams
MGMT2008‐OrganisationalBehaviour
Lecture 6: Groups and Teams
Nicole Knight
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Learning Objectives
• To be able to distinguish between groups and teams
• To be able to describe how groups are formed
• To understand the advantages and disadvantages of team working
• To identify factors that promote team effectiveness
• To understand how to create and develop effective teams
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Levels of Analysis
Group Level
Individual Level
Organizational Level
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Components of Organizational Behavior
Understanding organizational behavior
requires studying
Individuals in Organizations
Group and Team Processes
Organizational Processes
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What is a group?
• Shaw (1981) p.11‐12:“Two or more people who meet regularly and
influence one another over a period of time, perceive themselves as a distinct entity distinguishable from others, share common values and strive for common objectives”
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Importance of Groups in Organizations
• Help organizations accomplish important tasks.– Task performance.
• Members attain performance goals regarding quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results.
• Help to maintain a high‐quality workforce by satisfying members’ needs.– Members satisfaction.
• Members believe that their participation an experiences are positive and meet important personal needs.
– Team viability.• Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue working together on an
ongoing basis.
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Group Types
Formal groups.– Officially designated to serve a specific
organizational purpose.
– May be permanent or temporary.• Permanent work groups are command groups in the
vertical organization structure.
• Temporary work groups are task groups specifically created to solve a problem or perform a a defined task.
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Group Types
Informal groups.
– Emerge without being officially designated by the
organization.
– Types of informal groups.
• Friendship groups.
• Interest groups.
Group typesFormal groups Informal groups
Standing task group
Task group
Organisational benefits1. Creates new ideas2. Implements action plans3. Completes complex tasks4. Socialises new people
Individual benefits1. Confirm identity2. Satisfy need for affiliation3. Reduces feelings of insecurity
Interest group
Reference group
Organisational benefits1. Guidelines for appropriate behaviour2. Confirms social values congruent with
org culture3. Provides a sense of identity
Individual benefits1. Enhance status is group perceived
positively2. Satisfaction of security needs3. Enhanced self‐esteem4. Share group power to influence
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What are the stages ofgroup development?
A group or team passes through five lifecycle stages.– Forming.
– Storming.
– Norming.
– Performing.
– Adjourning.
Tuckman (1965)
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Group structure
• Group roles:– Roles can be functional (help the group) or dysfunctional (help the
individual)
• Task roles – directly help accomplish group goals– Initiating, giving information, seeking information, summarising,
elaboration
• Maintenance roles – establish & maintain good relationships– Encouraging, compromising, setting group standards, providing
feedback
• Personal roles – meet individual needs– Blocking, recognition seeking, dominating, avoiding
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Belbin (1981) – team rolesCompany worker Stable & controlled, practical, methodical, self-disciplined
Shaper Anxious, dominant & extrovert. Tough-minded & impulsive
Plant Dominant, introvert, independent, creative thinker
Monitor-evaluator Stable, introvert, prudent, rational, analytical
Resource investigator
Extrovert, enthusiastic, sociable, popular, networker
Team worker Supportive, understanding, concern for others, team player
Completer-finisher Conscientious, anxious, perfectionist, thorough
Chair Calm, steady, self-confident, optimist
(Specialist) Single-minded, independent, dedicated, provides knowledge when needed 13
Group structure
• Group norms• Formal norms – written rules and procedures
• Informal norms – developed out of group interaction and can be functional or dysfunctional
• Norms:– Performance‐related
– Appearance
– Informal social arrangements– Allocation of resources
• Norms are enforced
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Group structure
• Group cohesiveness• Degree of attractiveness and closeness of interpersonal bonds
between members• Sources of cohesiveness:
– Common, clearly specified and compatible goals– Successful experiences of reaching goals– Small size of the group– Interpersonal attraction between members– Challenge of a common enemy– High status– Cooperation among members– Female composition
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Group vs. individualAdvantages of groups over
individualsDisadvantages of groups compared to individuals
More knowledge and information. A group has more breadth and depth of knowledge
Group members could have competing goals and this can lead to conflict
Diverse viewpoints which allow for different options and creative alternatives
Time consuming to plan and coordinate team member activities
Increased understanding by participating in the problem-solving process
Social pressure to conform
Increased acceptance of the decision by group members as they understand it
Dominance by a few members. Those with high power or assertive
Better implementation and feeling of ownership of the decision
Ambiguous responsibility in who is accountable for the groups decision
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
From a systems perspective, group inputs are the foundation for all subsequent group action.Key group inputs are:– Nature of the task.– Goals.– Rewards.– Resources.– Technology.– Membership diversity.– Group size.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Tasks.
– Technical demands of a task.
• Routineness, difficulty, and information requirements.
– Tasks that are complex in technical demands
require unique solutions and more information
processing.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Tasks — cont.
– Social demands of a task.
• Relations, ego involvement, and controversies over
ends and means.
– Tasks that are complex in social demands involve
difficulties in reaching agreement on goals or
methods for accomplishing them.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Goals, rewards, and resources.
– Long‐term performance accomplishments rely on:
• Appropriate goals.
• Well‐designed reward systems.
• Adequate resources.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Technology.
– Provides the means to get work accomplished.
– The right technology must be available for the
task at hand.
– Work‐flow technology can affect the way group
members interact.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Membership characteristics.– A group must have the right skills and
competencies available for task performance and problem solving.
• Homogeneous groups may not perform well if they lack the requisite experiences, skills, and competencies.
• Heterogeneous groups may perform well if they effectively utilize a variety of experiences, skills, and competencies.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Membership characteristics — cont.
– Diversity‐consensus dilemma.
• Increasing diversity among group members makes it
harder for group members to work together, even
though the diversity itself expands the skills and
perspectives available for problem solving.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Membership characteristics — cont.– FIRO‐B theory.
• Identifies individual differences in how people relate to one another in groups.
• Based on needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection.
• Groups whose members have compatiblecharacteristics are likely to be more effective.
• Groups whose members have incompatiblecharacteristics are likely to be less effective.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Membership characteristics — cont.– Status.
• A person’s relative rank, prestige, or standing in a group.
– Status congruence.• Occurs when a person’s position within the group is
equivalent in status to positions held outside the group.
• When status incongruence is present, problems will likely occur.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Group size.– As group size increases, performance and
member satisfaction increase up to a point.• Division of work promotes performance and increased
satisfaction.
• Communication and coordination problems occur, in turn decreasing performance and satisfaction.
– Problem‐solving groups should have 5 to 7 members.
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What are the foundationsof group effectiveness?
Group size — cont.– Groups with an odd number of members may be
more effective for resolving disagreements and reaching a speedy decision.
– Groups with an even number of members may be more effective when careful deliberation, consensus building, or complex problem solving is required.
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What are group andintergroup dynamics?
From a systems perspective, the throughputs for a group or team are group dynamics.
Group dynamics concern the forces operating within groups that affect the way members relate to and work with one another.
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What are group andintergroup dynamics?
What goes on within groups.– Required behaviors.
• Those formally defined and expected by the organization.
– Emergent behaviors.• Those that group members display in addition to what
the organization asks of them.
– Emergent behaviors often supplement and extend required behaviors.
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What are group andintergroup dynamics?
What goes on within groups.– Member relationships revolve around:
• Activities — the things people do or the actions they take.
• Interactions — interpersonal communications and contacts.
• Sentiments — the feelings, attitudes, beliefs, or values held by group members.
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What are group andintergroup dynamics?
What goes on between groups.
– Intergroup dynamics.
• The dynamics that take place between two or more
groups.
– Organizations and their members seek to avoid
the negative aspects and achieve the positive
aspects of intergroup dynamics.
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What are group andintergroup dynamics?
What goes on between groups.– On the negative side, intergroup dynamics may divert
energies as members focus on animosities rather than performance.
– On the positive side, competing groups may:• Work harder.
• Become more focused on key tasks.
• Develop more internal loyalty and satisfaction.
• Achieve creativity in problem solving.
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How do groups make decisions?
How groups make decisions.– Decision by lack of response.
– Decision by authority rule.
– Decision by minority rule.
– Decision by majority rule.
– Decision by consensus.
– Decision by unanimity.
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How do groups make decisions?
Potential advantages of group decision making.– More knowledge and expertise is applied to solve the
problem.
– A greater number of alternatives are examined.
– The final decision is better understood and accepted by all group members.
– More commitment among all group members to make the final decision work.
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How do groups make decisions?
Potential disadvantages of group decision making.– Individuals may feel compelled to conform to the
apparent wishes of the group.
– The group’s decision may be dominated by one individual or a small coalition.
– Group decisions usually take longer to make.
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How do groups make decisions?
Groupthink.
– The tendency for members of highly cohesive groups to
lose their critical evaluation capabilities.
– Groupthink can lead the group to make poor decisions.
– Group members and leaders should:
• Be sensitive to the occurrence of groupthink.
• Take actions to prevent the occurrence of groupthink.
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How do groups make decisions?
How to improve group decision making.
– Brainstorming.
– Nominal group technique.
– Delphi technique.
– Computer‐mediated decision making.
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How do groups make decisions?
Brainstorming.– Group members actively generate as many ideas
and alternatives as possible, and they do so relatively quickly and without inhibitions.
– Brainstorming rules.• All criticism is ruled out.• Free‐wheeling is welcomed.• Quantity is wanted.• Piggy‐backing is good.
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How do groups make decisions?
Nominal group technique.
– A form of structured group decision making that
enables everyone to participate and have his/her
ideas heard without hostile criticism or
distortions.
– A structured voting procedure is used to prioritize
responses to the nominal question.
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How do groups make decisions?
Delphi technique.– Used in situations where group members are unable to
meet face to face.– The process.
• A series of questions is distributed to a panel.• Panel members submit their responses to a decision coordinator.• The decision coordinator summarizes the responses, and sends
the summary along with a follow‐up questionnaire to the panel.• Panel members send in their responses.• The process is repeated until a consensus is reached.
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How do groups make decisions?
Computer‐mediated decision making.
– Electronic brainstorming through the use of
special software and personal computers..
– The nominal group and Delphi techniques lend
themselves to computer mediation.
A team
• What is a team?– A group of between 3 and 12 people who:
• Have shared objectives, a shared task
• Need to work inter‐dependently to achieve these objectives/the task
• Have different and defined roles in the team
• Have a team identity
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Differences between group and team
Leadership
Accountability
Performance
Skills
Responsive
Groups Teams
Formal, strong leader
Individual
Sum of individual outputs
Diverse
To demands of management
Shared leadership roles
Shared & individual
Collective & synergy
Complementary
Self‐imposed demands
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Why work in teams?
• As organisations grow in size and become structurally more complex, groups of people are needed who work together in co‐ordinated ways to achieve objectives that contribute to the overall aims, effectiveness and competitiveness of the organisation.
• Team working provides the flexibility needed to respond effectively, appropriately and more quickly than competitors to the constantly changing demands in the organisation’s environment, and provides a mechanism for bringing together the range of expertise, skills and knowledge required to complete complex work tasks.
(Lawler, Mohrman & Ledford, 1992)
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Why work in teams?
• Mohrman et al (1995):– Teams are the best way to enact the strategy of some organisations
– Allows speedy, cost‐effective and high quality products and services– Allows organisations to learn more effectively
– Cross‐functional teams promote quality management
– Innovation is promoted via cross‐fertilisation of ideas– Flat organisations can be monitored and directed more effectively if
the functional unit is the team
– Teams can integrate in ways that individuals cannot and this is important in complex organisations
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Team working & effectiveness
• Applebaum & Blatt (1994):– 12 large scale surveys in the US
– Team based working associated with organisational efficiency and improved quality
• Macy & Izumi (1993):– Meta‐analysis of 131 studies of organisational change
– Team working had the greatest impact on financial performance
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Problems of team working
Social conformity
Satisficing
Groupthink
Lack of communication
skills
Group polarisation
Domination
Personality
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Types of teams
• Katzenbach & Smith (1993):– Teams that recommend things:
• Recommend solutions and formulate action plans. Temporary and disband after making recommendations (Task forces, project groups)
– Teams that make or do things:• Permanent work groups responsible for basic aspects (manufacturing,
sales etc) of the organisation.
• Self‐managed and/or cross functional
– Teams that run things:• Top managers of an organisation or unit responsible for organisation’s
mission, strategy etc.
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Team effectiveness
INPUTS
_____________
Task
Team composition
Organisational context
Cultural context
PROCESS
_____________
Leadership
Communication
Decision ‐ making
Cohesiveness
Team climate
OUTPUTS
_____________
Performance
Innovation
Well‐being
Viability
West, Borrill & Unsworth (1998)
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TASK
• Task characteristics account for most of the variance in team performance
• Hackman (1990) – 5 characteristics:• Autonomy
• Task variety
• Task significance
• Task identity
• Task feedback
INPUTS
__________
Task
Team composition
Organisational context
Cultural context
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Team composition
• The mix of people within the team can affect effectiveness
• Team diversity:– Task‐related diversity
• Each individual will have relevant and diverse skills that they can contribute
– Relations‐oriented diversity• Attributes inherent within the individual (age,
gender, race)
INPUTS
__________
Task
Team composition
Organisational context
Cultural context
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Organisational context
• How people are rewarded in the team
• Supportive organisational climate
• Extent of competition and politics
• Level of environmental uncertainty
INPUTS
__________
Task
Team composition
Organisational context
Cultural context
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Cultural context• Effect of culture can impact on what team are
seen as• Hofstede’s work:
– power distance = extent that unequal distribution of power is accepted
– uncertainty avoidance = extent to which unambiguous situations are avoided
– individualism‐collectivism = self interest versus work together for the greater good
– masculinity‐femininity = assertive masculine values versus sensitivity and concern
INPUTS
__________
Task
Team composition
Organisational context
Cultural context
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Leadership• Leaders will influence effectiveness of
teams• Transactional:
– Contingent reward & punishment, task‐oriented, interventions to reward required behaviour but punishment for undesired behaviour
• Transformational:– Influencing through charisma and visioning; charisma,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration
PROCESS
__________
Leadership
Communication
Decision making
Cohesion
Team climate
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Communication• Communication ensures that the team
survives.
• Need for a facilitator:– Direct discussions at meetings and facilitate the
discussions
• Impact of IT:– Voice messaging and video conferencing and the
impact on team communication
– Do you need face‐to‐face meetings?
PROCESS
__________
Leadership
Communication
Decision making
Cohesion
Team climate
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Decision‐making• Describe the problem:
– Team should recognise if a problem exists and be problem‐minded
• Identifying possible solutions:– Brainstorming ideas to generate solutions should lead to
better decisions
• Evaluating & choosing the best solution:– Evaluate on the basis of task aspects and not on maintaining
group harmony (groupthink)
• Implement the solution:– Allowing employees to participate in the decision‐making
have greater commitment and ownership of the decisions
PROCESS
__________
Leadership
Communication
Decision making
Cohesion
Team climate
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Team climate• Atmosphere within the team and the shared
perceptions of the informal and formal policies, procedures and practices
• Can include: support, respect for rules, goal‐oriented information and innovation
• West (1990) – 4 factors for innovation:– Vision = shared and clear view – Participative safety = safe environment
– Support for innovation
– Task orientation
PROCESS
__________
Leadership
Communication
Decision making
Cohesion
Team climate
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Outputs• Performance
– Externally focused and meeting the needs of those outside and inside the organisation
• Innovation:– Working in teams promotes innovation
• Well‐being:– Working in groups improves the health and satisfaction of
employees
• Viability:– Extent that the group is cohesive, with shared values and
commitment vs. destructive, turnover intention and dissatisfaction
OUTPUTS
__________
Performance
Innovation
Well‐being
Viability
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Developing teams
• Team member selection
• Managing team diversity
• Team‐building
• Team training
• Leadership development
• Work redesign
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References
• Katzenbach, J. R. & Smith, D. K. (1993). The Discipline of Teams. Harvard Business Review, 71, 111‐120.
• West, M. A., & Anderson, N. R. (1996). Innovation in top management teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 680‐693.
• West, M. A., Borrill, C. S., & Unsworth, K. L. (1998). Team effectiveness in organizations. In C. L. Cooper and I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chapter 1.
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