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A need for joined up
thinking: Groundwater
management in rural Uganda
Carolyn RobertsUniversity of Gloucestershire, UK
Association of AmericanGeographers AGM, San Francisco,
USA, April 2007
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Uganda
Lake Victoria
Location
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Key influences on waterpolicy and management in
UgandaEconomic fragility and high levels of
indebtedness
Rapid population growth in rural and urbanareas, leading to inability to meet basic needs
Post-colonial political instability and ethnictensions, leading to infrastructural collapse in the
1970s and 80s Low levels of literacy (
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Agenda 21 summary
Water resources must be planned and managed in anintegral and holistic way to prevent shortage of water,or pollution of water sources, from impedingdevelopment. Satisfaction of basic human needs and
preservation of ecosystems must be the priorities; afterthese, water users should be charged appropriately.
By the year 2000 all states should have national actionprogrammes for water management, based on
catchment basins or sub-basins, and efficient water-use programmes. These could include integration ofwater resource with land use planning and otherdevelopment and conservation activities, demandmanagement through pricing or regulation.
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Water-related MillenniumDevelopment Goals forUganda100% rural population to have access to
safe and adequate water and sanitation(latrines) by 2015
Access is defined as a safe source within1.5 km
Reductions in water-related diseases suchas diarrhoea
Some progress (World Bank, 2002) butprobably currently lagging behind targets on
both water supplies and sanitation
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UNESCO Water Supply and SanitationSector Assessment, 2000
Urbanwater
supply
Ruralwater
supply
Urbansanitation
Ruralsanitation
Population000s
(A.D. 2000)
3,083 18,695 3,083 18,695
Pop with houseconnection/
public sewer
204 229 220 28
Pop with Public
Waterpoint/non-sewer sanitation
1,341 2,763 1,834 10,274
PopulationServed
2,200 8,600 2,960 13,460
% Population
served
72 46 96 72
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Ugandas physical
environment
24,000 sq km highaltitude (1000m+)equatorial territory, in
the Nile Basin 17% open water with
lakes and swamps
Granitic basement
Lateritic Fe/Al soils,clay loams
Monsoonal climate
Tropicalforest/savannah
mosaic
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Ugandas human
background Population c. 25 m
Growth rate 3.1% /a
50% population
under 15 Mean family size
5.5-6 children
Life expectancy atbirth c.M46, F51 yrs
GDP $310 /hd
Inflation 6%
154th in worldranking of economic
indicators
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Approx. 80% rural population
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Large villages and small towns
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Water availability in Uganda
Uganda apparently has a
large volume of availablewater per head
Mean water use in Africais 47l/hd/day
UNEP estimate 25
African countries,including Uganda, willexperience waterscarcity or stress in thenext 20-30 years, mainlybecause of populationgrowth
Climate change willincrease uncertainty
Distribution and quality
problems also influencescarcity
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Ugandan policies on water
1990 Water and Sanitation Programme began forrural towns (500-50,000 people)
1992 UNCED (Integrated Water ResourceManagement)
1994 Uganda Water Action Plan
1995 Uganda Water Statute 1996 Uganda (Draft) Water Policy
1998 Regulations for the control of water resources,water and sewerage and waste water discharges
Uganda Wetlands Conservation Strategy 1999-2000 Africas Water Vision (U.N.)
2000 Uganda Rural Water and SanitationInvestment Plan and Strategy
2001 Nile Basin Strategic Action Programme
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Current emphases inUgandan water policy Rational use of water, in an integrated way
Decentralisation of responsibility for implementationfrom the Ministry of Water, Lands and EnvironmentsWater Development Department to District Offices
Full cost recovery with some cross-subsidisation ofsafe water services for poor people
Full stakeholder involvement (Mobilisation Officers)
NGO/aid agency and private sector involvement
Accountability
Safe storage, treatment and disposal of waste,according to the Polluter Pays principle
Technical training at local level
Increasing emphasis on privatisation
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Key areas for research
Comparison of supply management situationin 2001-6 with the late 1960s
Environmental footprints of settlements
Environmental impacts of water
management strategiesEconomic and social costs and benefits of
water supply arrangements
Sustainability criteria for water supplies indeveloping areas (Loucks and Gladwell,1999)
Field investigation conducted by UoG and
NTCK staff and students
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Gilbert Whites Drawers of
Water, 1972
Drawers of
Water, 2004
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Kamuli
Iganga
Kaliro
Case
studyvillages
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Alternative supplies ofwater in rural areas
Household connected to mains supply,pumped from river, reservoir or borehole
Public or private standpipe with tapBorehole with handpump
Well
Spring or protected springRiver, lake or swamp
Puddle
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High tech pumped supply fromsmall reservoir: Kamuli
Cost andmaintenance issues
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Metered mains householdsupply: Kamuli
Take up is very low;most residentscontinue to usealternative sources
Mean daily use inKamuli in c. 1968 bytap holders was86l/hd/day (Iganga85l/hd/d)
Rural use was c 13-16l/hd/day
Borehole supplies arealso preferred by local
people on qualitygrounds
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Public or private pumped
supplies to standpipes,Iganga
Colonial system,
disused
Diesel-pumped borehole,
with taps
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Borehole andhand pumps
Frequently funded fromforeign aid programmes
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Protected spring
Open well
Protectedsprings and
wells areuniversal
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Surface and groundwaterquality parameters
pH
Conductivity
Nitrate
Nitrite
Ammonia
Phosphate
Iron
Chloride
E. Coli (partialcoverage)
Q i i i h
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Questionnaire with users,undertaken at the source using
NTCK student interpretersGender Indirect estimates of relative wealth (e.g.
shoes, bicycle, clothes?)
Distance travelled and mode of transportHousehold sizes (adults, children)
Frequency and volume of collections perhousehold, per day
Price of water
Views on water quality at source, and anyrequired treatment prior to consumption
Other water sources used, and reasons
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Payment for interviews
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3500
3550
3500
NATWANA
Kaliro
Station
600
200
200
200
300
300
400
400
500
500
KALIRO Residential area
Swamps
River
Minor road
Railway line (disused)
Contour (m)
Borehole
New borehole
New area for pipes
CONDUCTIVITY
600 S
500 S
400 S
300 S
200 S
0 1km
(Approx)
GroundwatercontaminationKaliro
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3650
3700
3750
3700
3700
3650
700
600
200
300
400
500
IGANGA
Built Up Area
Swamps
River
Minor Road
Major Road
Disused Railway Line
Contour (m) Borehole
CONDUCTIVITY
700 S
600 S
500 S
400 S
300 S
200 S
0 1km
(Approx)
Groundwater contamination,Iganga
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Water quality findings
Village/town impacts on groundwater quality
in Kamuli, Iganga and Kaliro are clear andapparently repeatable, year on year
Simple analytical technology is adequate
Comparison with official data suggestscomparable picture for nitrate, phosphate,ammonia, pH, conductivity, iron, chloride
Bacteriological data may not be required
Contamination is the result of lack ofsanitation, pit latrine seepage and detergentdisposal
Users frequently draw on contaminated
sources, in all settings
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Basic findings on water use
Typical consumption byborehole users inIganga, Kaliro andKamuli is c. 20l/hd/day
UK domestic
consumption isbetween 200 and 300l/hd/day
US domesticconsumption is c 400
l/hd/day Fetching water requires
about 5-10% typicalcalorific intake (Whiteet al)
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The safe water chain
Lack of sanitationand effective
drainage impedesprogress onsustainable supplies
Implementation is
problematic despitethe efforts ofmobilisation officers
Th i i i f
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The socio economic impact ofscarcity is as severe as in the
1960s For most rural Ugandanwomen in 2006 therhythm of the working
day is still made up of
walking, queuing andcarrying water
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Iganga: Diesel-driven pumpedborehole supplying standpipes
Water sellers
prices areapproximatelytwice that ofpersonallycarried supplies
Take up bywealthierresidents issignificant
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Policy Impact One
Rapid population growth leading to
inadequate facilitiesPolicy suggests that a new borehole/facility
is required
Maximum population within 1.5 km soughtBoreholes installed in urban/suburban areas
Local groundwater is contaminated from pitlatrines and other waste water
People abandon traditional sources and walkinto town to collect water from boreholes
Perception that water quality is good, noperceived need or no fuel for boiling
Increased risk of water-borne diseases
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Health and social wellbeingimpacts
Wh t h t P li
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What happens next: PolicyImpact TwoWater yields are relatively low per boreholeTypical use is only c. 20 l/hd/day
Women and children queue for hours
Borehole area is poorly maintained andleakage, spillage or animal trampling occurs
Stagnant water supports mosquitoes
People are infected with malaria whilst
queuing into the eveningPrivatised health care providers flourish
Inhabitants perceive higher levels ofhealthcare in urban areas, promoting rural-
urban migration
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Key findings
Villages and small towns have a significantenvironmental footprint on groundwater
Water quality may be estimated adequatelyby using simple determinands such asconductivity, reducing the need to wait forofficial assessments to become available
Water supply provision must be matched byinvestment in sanitation
Education is significant, but needs to bebased on appropriate scientific information
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Strategic targets are beingoverwhelmed by population growth
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The impact of privatisation?
Lack of technicalcapacity in localgovernment, plusissues of non-
compliance with centralpolicy by aid agencieshas promotedprivatisation
Some sources are
removed altogetherWater costs have risen
to approximately 10%of family income insampled villages
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Concepts of sustainability
Sustainable water resourcesystems are those designed and
managed to fully contribute to theobjectives of society, now and inthe future, while maintaining their
ecological, environmental, andhydrological integrity
Loucks and Gladwell, 1999
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Concepts of Sustainability
1. Engineering
2. Economics
3. Environment
4. Equity
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Concepts of sustainability
Resilience
Adaptive capacity
Vulnerability
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Acknowledgements Staff and students from
National Teachers College
Kaliro, Uganda Staff and students from
University of Gloucestershire
Ministry of Water, Lands and
Environment, Kampala,Uganda
Uganda Bureau of
Statistics
Busoga Trust
White G.F., Bradley D.J.,and White A.U. 1972Drawers of WaterUniversity of Chicago