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vvvGender Bias in Psychology
"Works Cited Missing"
In psychology, there seems to be a bias towards females, leading tothe misinterpretation of women. For example in experimental studies,
the performance of the participants tends to be influenced by theexpectations of the investigator. People have lower expectations for
women; therefore we collect data showing lower task performance for
them.
Two people who have investigated gender biasin psychological researchare Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988). They give two forms of gender
bias; firstly Alpha Bias which is the tendency to exaggerate
differences between the sexes and Beta Bias, this is the tendency tominimise or ignore differences between the sexes.
It has appeared to be that alpha bias is more popular in westerncultures. For example Freud said that a childs superego develops when
they identify with their parent of the same sex. Boys identify withtheir father more than daughters identify with their mother resulting
in boys developing the stronger superego. Hoffman disagreed with thistheory saying that there was no significant difference in the
behaviours of boy and girls and also found that girls in fact are much
better at resisting temptation. Also Freud only studied middle-classViennese women which suggest cultural bias.
Beta bias produces sex differences in research. Male and female
participants are used in most studies but there is no attempt to
analyse the data to see whether there are significant sex differences.
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These sex differences found maybe due to differential treatment of the
participants. Rosenthal found that experimenters were more pleasantand friendly towards the female participants. Rosenthal concluded that
male and female participants may psychologically simply not be in the
same experiment.
Stage theories in psychology tend to have been founded on researchdone with men and then have their results generalised to women also.
For example Levisons Seasons of a Mans Life. Levinson based his
theory on research with 40 men. He attributed these seasons to womentoo.
In 1986 Levinson did research to develop the Seasons of a Womans
Life. Levinson based this on research with 45 women over a period of
years. Similarly Roberts and Newton (1987) reviewed work on thistheme and whilst they found broad similarities between men and women,
they found a key difference in the dreams and aspirations of men andwomen. Levinson finds what he calls gender splitting whereby men
have a unified vision of their future whilst women and split between
career and marriage. In a similar way, Roberts and Newton found thatthe family provides a supporting role for men but women actually
construct their dreams around their relationships with their family.Therefore it could suggest alpha bias rather than beta bias.
Social influence studies have shown a gender bias through participantsused. For example in Milgrams study where is used 40 men aged 20
50. All of whom were from New Haven area, North America. Theyresponded to an advert asking for participants for a research study
into memory and learning at Yale Uni. Also Asch used groups of 17 men.
Moscovici used groups of 6 women in his study.
Kohlbergs theory of moral development found that men tended to be athigher level of moral development than women, he assumed that there
were minimal differences in terms of moral thinking (beta bias)
therefore it wouldnt have mattered if he had used male participantsbecause they still represent everyone. Kohlbergs claim of mens
superiority to women has been disputed by Gilligan who said that
Kohlberg has focused too much on mortality of justice rather thancare. He says that boys develop mortality of justice and girls develop
mortality of care.
Kohlbergs theory is said to have an androcentric view in his theoryof mortality, where it has a male bias and also in Aschs conformity
study where it was based largely on male conformity.
Women tend to conform more and men conform less when they think they
are being observed. Eagly says that this difference is the result ofthe pressure the individual has to behave in ways that are viewed
acceptable within traditional gender-role constraints. Baumeister andSommer suggest that both sexes are motivated to be accepted by their
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groups. But men aim to be accepted by demonstrating independence and
leadership qualities. Furthermore, people who volunteer forexperiments are less authoritarian than those who dont.
It could be that there was experimenter bias in these studies. For
instance, Rosenthal observed more than 70% of male experimenterssmiled when they gave instructions to female subjects; only 12% smiledat males. This could this have happened in Moscovicis experiment.
Also Gender bias in diagnosis is a fundamental issue. There is theargument that there is gender bias in the DSM. For example, the
DSM-IV criteria for anorexia nervosa include an intense fear ofgaining weight, a distorted self-perception of body image, refusal to
maintain normal body weight and three consecutive months of
amenorrhea. The criterion of amenorrhea has been subject to muchcriticism for the creation of a gender bias in diagnosis of the
disorder. Russell suggests we solve this problem by altering theamenorrhea criterion to an endocrine disorder which manifests itself
clinical in amenorrhea, or in the case of male subjects, a loss of
sexual interest and lack of potency.