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Pergamon
Language Sciences
Vol. 18, Nos 3- 4, pp. 671 -688 , 1996
Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0388-0001/96 15.00 + 0.00
S0388-0001 96)00041-1
R E Q U E S T S T R A T E G I E S I N B R I T IS H E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E
S a ek o FU K U S H I M A
T s u r u U n i v e r s i ty
3 -8 - 1 T a h a r a T s u r u Y a m a n a s h i 4 0 2 J A P A N
A B S T R A C T
This paper exam ines En g l i sh p roduc t ion b y Br i ti sh sub jec ts and Japanese p roduc t ion by
Japan ese sub jec t s i n r eques t s i t ua tions . A p r ev ious s tudy (Fuku sh im a , 1994) se lec t ed
comparab le r eques t s i t ua t ions be tween Br i t i sh and Japanese cu l tu r es among which , two
s i tua tions w ere used in t h is s tudy : one wh ich w as assessed as a r eques t w i th l ow impos i t ion
on the r eques t ee and the o the r wh ich was assessed as a r eques t w i th h igh impos i t i on on the
r cques t ee .
The r esu l t s showed tha t more po l i t eness s t r a t eg i es were employed bo th in Eng l i sh and in
Japan ese whe n the degree o f impos i t i on inc r eased . A c lose r i nves t iga t ion , ho we ver ,
r evea l ed some d i f f e r ences be tween En g l i sh and Japanese r eques t s t ra t eg i es .
K E Y W O R D S
Req ues t s ; S t r a teg i es ; Po l i t eness ; Br i t ish Eng l i sh ; Japanese .
I N T R O D U C T I O N
In th is s tudy, a compar ison was made in the use of pol i teness s t ra tegies , especi ' ,d ly in
r eques t s i t ua t ions , by Br i t i sh and Japanese sub jec t s whose p roduc t ion in t he i r na t ive
l anguages was com pared . M y main concerns were to i nves tiga te (1 ) w he the r t he r e a r e any
simi lar i t ies or d i f ferences between the request s t ra tegies employed by the Br i t i sh subjects
and those by the Japa nese su b jec t s ; and i f so , ( 2 ) whe re and h ow they a r e s imi l a r o r
d i f f e ren t . Req ues t s w ere chosen , because they invo lve the exe rc i se o f po l i t eness s t r at eg i es
because o f t he i r in t r in s i c cha rac t e r , and they a r e f r equen t ly used in ou r da i ly l i fe .
M y hypo thes i s i s t ha t po l i t eness i s un ive r sa l t o a ce r ta in ex ten t , bu t t he r e may be som e
cul tural d i f ferenc es in it s real i sa t ion. As for the universal i ty of pol i teness, i t i s hyp othe sised
tha t t he h ighe r t he degree o f imp os i t i on , t he more po l i t eness s tr a t eg i es a r e em ploye d bo th in
671
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672 SAEKO FUKU Stt lMA
Engl i sh and Japa nese . In t h is s t udy , two s i t ua tions wi th d i f fe ren t deg re es o f impos i t i on
were used in o rde r t o t e st th i s hypo thes i s .
Brown and Lev inson (1978 : 79 ) cons ide r t ha t t he fo l l owing fac to rs de t e rmine po l i t eness
st ra tegies in a g iven s i tuat ion:
1 . the ' socia l d is tance ' (D) of S and H;
2 . t he rel a ti ve ' po w er ' (P ) o f S and H;
3 . the absolute ranking (R) of imposi t ion in the part icular cul ture .
In t h i s s t udy , t he fac to rs o f soc i a l d i s t ance and the re l a t i ve power o f S and H were se t a s
equa l . In t h i s wa y , t he fac to r o f impos i t i on cou ld be more c lose ly i nves t iga t ed .
S ince t he pe rcep t ion o f deg ree o f impos i t i on may va ry f rom cu l tu re t o cu l tu re , reques t
s i t ua t ions wh ich had been assessed as be ing s imi l a r be tween Br i t i sh and Japanese cu l tu res
(Fu kus h im a , 1994) were used . I t i s hoped tha t a va l id compar i so n be tween the Br i t ish and
thc Japanes e da t a can be made in t h is way . The fo l lowing two s i tua t ions w ere used in t h i s
s tudy:
Throughou t t he reques t s i t ua t ions , suppose you ask reques t o f B , who i s t he same sex as
you and l ives next do or to you in the s~urle s tud ents ' hal l . B i s an acquaintan ce, b ut not a
c lose fr iend.
Si tuat ion 1 : Yo u are coo king in the k i tchen. Yo u real i se yo u have run out of sa l t . B i s a l so
cook ing in t he k i t chen .
S i tua tion 2 : Bo th you a nd B a re s t ay ing in hal l du r ing the vaca t ion . Tw o f r i ends a re v i s i ti ng
you du r ing the vaca tion . Th ey wou ld l i ke t o s t ay wi th you , bu t you have space fo r on ly one
in you r room in ha ll .
Acco rd ing to S if i anou (1992 : 121-122 ) , req ues t s can be ca t egor i sed in to two :
1 . Req ues t s fo r i n fo rmat ion ; and
2 . R eques t s fo r ac t i on .
S i f i anou I b i d . ) s t a te s t ha t t he second ca t egory , reques t s fo r ac t ion inv o lves a h ighe r deg ree
o f impos i t i on than the f i r s t ca t ego ry , reques t s fo r i n fo rmat ion . Bo th o f t he reques t
s i t ua tions in t h i s s t udy fa ll i n to t he second ca t egory , reques t s fo r ac t ion . W i th in t he same
ca tego ry , s it ua t ion 1 was a reques t fo r good s w h i l e s i tua t ion 2 was a reques t fo r he lp , and
these two reques t s i t ua t ions were a ssessed d i f fe ren t ly i n t e rms o f t he deg ree o f impos i t i on
by the Br i t ish and Japan ese i n fo rman t s . S i tua tion 1 was a ssesse d as a reques t w i th l ow
impos i t i on and s i t ua t ion 2 wi th h igh impos i t i on on the reques t ee , acco rd ing to t he re su l t s o f
a s s e s s m e n t b y b o t h B r i ti s h an d J a p a n e s e i n f o r m a n t s ( F u k u s h i m a , 1 9 9 4 ) .
D A TA C O L L E C T I O N P R O C E D U R E
Engl i sh p roduc t ion da t a by the Br i t i sh sub jec t s were co l l ec t ed in Read ing , Eng land and
Japane se p rod uc t ion da t a by the Japane se sub jec t s we re co l lec t ed in To ky o .
The sub jec t s were f i r s t p resen t ed wi th w r i tt en reques t s i t ua t ions t yped on a ca rd i n the i r
na t ive l anguages . Then , t he sub jec t s were a sked to u t t e r wha t t hey wou ld say under each
s i tua t ion in the i r na t ive l anguages . W ha t they sa id was t ape - reco rded and w as t ransc r ibed .
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REQUESTING IN BRITISH ENGLISH AND JAPANESE 673
S U B J E C T S
The sub jec t s in th is s tudy w ere s e lec ted so as to have com parab i l i ty in t e rms of age , l evel o f
educa t ion and occupat ion , s ix teen Br i t i sh undergraduates and f i f t een Japanese
undergraduates s e rv ing as the sub jec t s .
D A TA A N A L Y S I S & R E S U L T S
A com par i son be tween the s t r a teg ies in Engl i sh and those in J apanese wa s m ade . S ince
Eng l i sh and Japanese a re d i f f e ren t in the i r s en tence s t ruc ture , voca bulary , e t c . , I had som e
d i f f i cu l t y i n ap p l y i n g t h e C C S A R P ( B l u m - K u l k a & O l s h t a i n , 1 9 8 4 ; B l u m - K u l k a , e t . a l . ,
1 9 8 9 ) an a ly t ic a l m e t h o d d ev e l o p ed f o r u s e w i t h E n g l i s h , F r en ch , G e r m an , D an i s h , H eb r ew
and Ru ss ian . Based on the ana lys i s metho d used by B lum -Kulk a , e t. al . (1989 ) and that by
Si l ' i anou (1992) , I t r i ed to modi fy them, by adding more ca tegor ies , o r def in ing each
ca tegory for J apanese . The fo l lowin g are the f ea tures used to ana lyse da ta in th i s study:
1 . S t ruc tures o f the Head Act and Sup por t ive Move( s )
2 . S t r a tegy types o f the Head A ct
3 . F o r m s an d t y p es o f th e H ead A c t
4 . T y p es o f t he S u p p o r t iv e M o v e ( s )
H e r e , th e t e r m s , H ead A c t an d S u p p o r t i v e M o v e a r e u s ed i n t h e s en s e o f B l u m - K u l k a ,
e t . a l . (1989: 275-276) , who def ine them as fo l lows :
l l ea d c t
is the m inim al refit wlfich can realize a request; it is the co re of tile request sequence.
S u p p o r t i v e M o v e is a un it external to the request, which modifies its impac t by e ither aggravating or
m itigating its force.
S t ruc tures o f Head Act and Suppor t ive Move( s )
B lu m -Ku lka , e t . a l. (1989:27 6) s t a t e the fo l lowing as pos s ib le s t ruc tures o f the Head Act
an d S u p p o r t i v e M o v e (s ):
(a) the minimal uni t only;
( b ) P o s t- p o s ed : H ead A c t + S u p p o r t i v e M o v e ( s ) ,
P r e - p o s ed : S u p p o r t i v e M o v e + H ea d A c t ;
( c ) Mul t ip le He ads .
Based on the above poss ib le s truc tures o f the Head Act and Su ppor t ive M ov e( s ) , (b ) was
subca tegor i s ed in to th ree and (d) No Head Act s was added by the au thor , and the fo l lowing
are the poss ib le s t ruc tures o f the He ad Act and Suppo r t ive Move( s ) :
( a ) Min imal un i t on ly (Hea d A ct on ly)
(b- 1 ) Pos t -posed : Head Act + S upp or t ive M ove( s )
( b - 2 ) P r e -p o s ed : S u p p o r t iv e M o v e + H ead A c t
( b - 3 ) In b e t w een - p o s ed : S u p p o r t i v e M o v e + H ead A c t + S u p p o r t iv e M o v e
(c) Mul t ip le Hea ds
( d ) N o H ead A c ts : S u p p o r t i v e M o v e ( s ) o n l y
The r esu l t s o f the s truc tures used by the Br i t ish sub jec t s a re as fo l lows :
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67 4 SA EK O F U K U S ~
1 0 0
9 0
8 0
7 0
6 0
5 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
10
0 i i i i i
(a ) (b - l ) (b -2) (b -3) (c ) (d )
S i t u a t i o n 1
S i t u a t i o n 2
( a ) H A o n l y
( b - l ) H A + S M
(b-2) SM + HA
( b -3 ) S M + H A + S M
( e ) M u l t i p l e H A
( d ) S M o n l y
Struc tu res
Fig. 1 . Structures by the Br i t ish subjects
Fro m these r esu l t s , it can be s a id tha t in si tua tion 1 in which the degree of im pos i t ion was
low , the s t ruc ture ( a ) Head Act on ly was mos t f r equent ly used , bu t in s i tua t ion 2 in which
the degree of impo s i t ion wa s increased , the s t ruc ture (b ) Head Act accompan ied by
S u p p o r t i v e M o v e w as m o s t f r eq u en tl y u sed ( 5 9 . 9 % ) , an d am o n g ( b ) , ( b - 2 ) S u p p o r t iv e
M ove + Hea d Act was prefer r ed . S ince the degree of impo s i t ion increased in s i tua tion 2 ,
the sub jec t s t ended to mi t iga te the impo s i t ion by making a suppo r t ive mov e f ir s t. Ho we ver ,
in s i tua t ion 2 , the st ruc ture ( a ) Head Act on ly was s ti ll used by 33 .3% . I t m ay be no ted tha t
( d ) S u p p o r t i v e M o v e o n l y w as em p l o y ed i n si tu a t io n 2 , a l th o u g h i t w as em p l o y ed b y o n l y
one sub jec t . The s t ruc ture (d ) Suppor t ive M ove on ly was no t em ploy ed in s i tua t ion 1 .
When the degree of impos i t ion was r e la t ive ly low , the sub jec t s s t a t ed the i r Head Act , bu t
wh en the degree of impos i t ion increased as in si tua tion 2 , there was a sub jec t w ho avoided
s ta t ing the Head Act , by g iv ing on ly suppor t ive mo ves . ( e .g . Yo u kn ow I 've go t these
t w o f r ien d s co m i n g u p a t t he w eek e n d . I ' v e g o t a p r o b lem w i t h m y r o o m . A r e y o u g o i n g
to be here a t the week end? I t ' s jus t tha t I 'm hav ing a p rob lem put t ing them bo th in one
r o o m . )
The fo l lowin g are the r esu l ts o f the s t ruc tures used by the J apanese sub jec t s :
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R E Q U E S T I N G I N B R I T I S H E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E 6 7 5
1 0 0 % -
9 0 % -
8 0 % -
7 0 %
6 0 ~
. . . , . . . . . ,
5 0 % - ii~iii i~i~
i : i : i : i : i : i
4 0 % - ~i i~iiiii~
i i ii i
3 0 % - ii ii i i
: i : : i : i
2 0 % - ii i iiiii
. . . . . . . . , ,
~ o % - i i i ii ii l
: : : i : ? i
0 %
a ) b - l ) b - 2 )
( b - 3 ) ( c ) ( d )
S i t u a t i o n 1
S i t u a t i o n 2
( a ) H A
o n l y
( b - l ) H A + S M
( b - 2 ) S M + H A
( b -. 3 ) S M + H A + S M
( c )
M u l t i p l e
H A
( d ) S M o n l y
St r uc t ur e s
Fi g . 2 . S t r u c t u r e s b y t h e Jap an e se su b j e c t s
T h e d i s t r ib u t ion o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s b y t h e Jap an e se su b j e c t s was n ot as d ive r se as t h ose o f t h e
B r i t i sh su b j e c t s . In s i t u at ion 1 , th e s tr u ct u re ( a ) H e a d Ac t on ly wa s a l so m os t f r e q u e n t ly
u s e d , a n d t h e r e st b e i n g t h e s tr u c tu r e o f ( b - 2 ) S u p p o r t i v e M o v e + H e a d A c t . A m o n g t he
s t r u c t u r e s o f ( b ) , ( b - 2 ) was t h e mos t f r e q u e n t ly u se d b ot h in s i t u at ion 1 an d in s i t u at ion 2 .
I t ap p e ar s t h at t h e Jap an e se su b j e c t s p r e fe r r ed t o m i tiga t e th e f or c e b e f or e m ak in g a r e q u e s t .
In s i t u at ion 2 , in wh ic h t h e d e gr e e o f imp os i t ion w as in c r e ase d , t h e u se o f t h e st r u ct u r e ( a )
H e a d A c t o n l y d e c r e a s e d , a n d ( b -2 ) S u p p o r t i v e M o v e + H e a d A c t w a s m o r e fr e q u en t ly u s e d
t h an in s i t u at ion 1 , an d ( d ) S u p p or t ive M ove on ly was a l so u se d in si t u at ion 2 , a s f ou n d in
t h e B r i t i sh su b j e c t s d a t a .
S t r a t e gy t yp e s O f t h e H e ad Ac t
T h e s t r a t e gy t yp e s o f t h e H e ad Ac t c an b e c las s i f i e d in t o t h e f o l lowin g:
( a ) D ir e c t or b a ld on r e c or d r e q u e s t s
e . g . O p e n th e w i n d o w .
( b ) S tr u c t u r a l or c on ve n t ion a l in d ir e ct r e q u e s t s
e . g . W o u l d y o u m i n d o p e n i n g t h e w i n d o w , p le a se ?
( c ) Pr agmat ic or n on - c on ve n t ion a l in d ir e c t r e q u e s t s
e . g . I t s h o t in h e r e .
( d ) C o m b i n a t i o n o f ( a ) , ( b ) o r ( c )
T h e s t r a t e gy t yp e s o f t h e H e ad Ac t u se d b y t h e B r i t i sh su b j e c t s ar e as f o l lows:
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676 SAEKO FUKUSHIMA
1 0 0 - /
i
9 0 % -
8 0 -
7 0
-
6 0 % -
5 0 % -
4 0 % -
3 0 % -
2 0 % -
1 0 % -
0 % /
(a) (c) Cd)
iii
ii i
i i i i
iii
:i:
/
( b )
[ ~ S i t u a t i o n 1
S i t u a t i o n 2
( a ) D i r e c t
( b ) C o n y e n t i o n a i
( c ) N o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l
( d) C o m b i n a t i o n
S t r a t e g y t y p e s
Fig. 3. St rategy types of HA by the Br i t ish subjects
In both s i tuat ions 1 and 2 , the Br i ti sh subjects chose (b) conv ent ional indirect reques ts .
To an alyse the s trategy types of the Hea d Acts used by the Japanese subjec ts , i t i s ne cessary
to match the categor ies below with the B r i ti sh categor ies abov e.
(a) Direct or ba ld on record reques ts
Takahashi (1987) class i f ies the fol lowing examples as di rect di rect ives , and I would
conside r them as di rect or bald on reco rd reques ts . There are di f ferences in po l i teness level
among them, for ins tance, "Mado o akete kudasai" i s more pol i te than "Mado o akero," but
they all fall into the same ca tegory: d irect or bald on record.
e .g . Mad o o ake nasa i. (Open the wind ow . )
Mad o o akero . (Open the window . )
Mado o akete kudasa i . (P lease open the window . )
(b) St ructural or conven t ional indirect reques ts
The fo l lowing examples are a l so t aken f rom Takahashi (1987) , but I chose the fo l lowing
from the indirect di rectives ci ted in Takah ashi ( Ibid. ) on the bas is of conven t ional i ty. As
was the case in (a) Direct or bald on record req ues ts , there are di fferences in pol i teness level
among the fol lowing examples , but they are considered to fal l into the category of
convent ional indirect reques ts .
e .g . Ma do o akete kure masu ka . (Wil l you open the window ?)
Mado o akete it adake masuka . (Would yo u mind opening the window ?)
Mado o akerare masuk a . (Can you open the window?)
Mado o akete kudasaru yo o onegai deki masu ka . (Can I ask you to open the
w i ndow ?)
Mado o akerare ru ka doo ka to omoi m ashi te . (I wond er i f you co uld open the
w i ndow . )
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R E Q U E S T I N G I N B R I T IS H E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E 6 77
M ado o ake te it adakeru to a r iga t ai no desu ga . ( I w ould apprec ia t e i t i f you w ould
o p en t h e w i n d o w . )
(c) Pragmat ic or non-convent ional indi rect requests
e.g. A tsui desu ne. (I t s hot . )
The s t ra tegy types o f t he Head Act emp loyed by the Japanese subjec ts a re as fo l lows:
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
(a) b ) c ) d )
Situation 1
Situation 2
(a) Direct
(b) Convent ional
(c) Non-convent ional
(d) Combinat ion
Stra tegy types
Fig . 4 . S t ra tegy types of H A by the Japanese subjec t s
The m ost f requent ly used s t ra tegy type used by the Japanese subjec ts was (b) Convent ional
indi rect requests , as was found in the data by the Bri t i sh subjects , a l though the percentage
of the use of convent ional indi rect reque sts by the Japa nese subjects wa s low er than that by
the Bri t i sh.
The major d i f fe rence be tween the resu lt s o f t he Japanese subjec t s and those of t he Br i ti sh
was tha t more d i rect reques t s were employed by the Japanese than the Br i ti sh . In s i tua t ion
1, in which the degre e of imposi t ion wa s low , almost hal f the subjects u sed di rect requests ,
and even in si tuat ion 2, in which the degree of imposi t ion increased, two subjects used this
st rategy type.
Thi s resu l t may have to do wi th the use of Japanese in re l a t i on to i n -group members ,
espec ia l ly among equal s . In Japanese , d i rec t forms are of t en used and permi t ted am ong in-
group members, especial ly when the interactants are equal in status, which was the case in
the reque st s i tuations in this s tudy . Tha t ma y be wh y di rect reque sts were often used by the
Japane se subjec ts . The use of d i rect reques t s among equal s t ends to s t rengthen the bond of
sol idari ty betwe en them. I t seem s that in Bri t ish society, negat ive pol i teness i s often
prefe rred, because distance i s highly valued in such relat ionships. I t i s somet ime s claimed
that Japa nese society i s a negat ive pol i teness oriented society (e .g. Blu m- Ku lka, 1987:
140) , bu t accord ing to my working hy pothes i s , it i s on ly so amo ng out -group mem bers . In
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678 SAEKO FUKUSHIMA
Japanese soc ie ty , among in -g roup members , ba ld -on- record pos i t ive po l i t eness i s o f ten
used , s ince so l ida ri ty i s h igh ly va lued . Am ong ou t -g roup mem bers in Japanese soc ie ty ,
negat ive pol i teness is of ten used, because dis tance is h ighly valued in such re la t ionships .
Bri t ish socie ty is a lso c la imed to be a negat ive pol i teness socie ty . H ow ev er , th is does n ot
necessa r ily mean that Br i t ish peop le use on ly nega tive po l i teness . As wa s d i scussed above
regarding use of posi t ive and negat ive pol i teness in Japanese socie ty , both posi t ive and
negat ive pol iteness are used in Bri t ish socie ty , too . In o ther word s, posi t ive pol i teness is
a l so used among in -g roup mem bers in Br i ti sh soc iety . Ho we ver , the re may be d i f ferences
in exercise of posi t ive and negat ive pol i teness in Bri t ish socie ty and that in Japanes e so cie ty .
The d i f fe rences be tween them may l ie in the boundary o f in -g roup and ou t -g roup members
in each socie ty . Bri t ish and Japan ese people m ay consider people in the same s i tuation as
d i f fe ren t g roup members .
Bri t ish subjects in th is s tudy seem to have considered the person who l ives next door in a
s tuden ts ' ha l l a s an ou t -g roup member , bu t Japanese sub jec t s seem to have cons ide red the
person in the same s i tua t ion as an in -g roup mem ber . Conseq uen t ly , B r i ti sh sub jec t s used
negat ive pol i teness f requently to minimise imp osi t ions , while Japanese subjects used bald-
on-record pol i teness f requently to s trengthen sol idar i ty between in-group members .
Altho ugh th is s t i ll needs to be invest igated fur ther , the d ifferences in use of s t ra tegy type s
between Bri t ish and Japanese subjects may l ie in th is k ind of d ifference.
Forms o f the Head Ac t
Sif ianou (199 2: 125-156) categorises the forms of Head Act as fo l lows:
1 . Imperat ives
2. In terrogat ives
3 . Nega t ives
4. Declara t ives
4 .1 . Hin ts
4 .2 . Need s ta temen ts
5. Elliptical construction
Am ong the ca tegorie s above , Nega t ives can a l so be inc luded in In te r roga t ives , ( e .g .
W ould n ' t you . . . ? ) o r in Dec la rat ives (e .g . I wo u ldn ' t m ind ano the r d r ink . You cou ldn ' t
rust le som ething up for me .) Th erefo re , Negatives will be included in In terrogat ives and
Declara t ives . El l ip t ica l construct ion can a lso be included in the o ther categories . Fo r
instance, the verb is miss in g in (Call) an amb ulance, wh ich is an imperat ive . Th erefore ,
e l l ip t ica l construct ion wil l be a subcategory of Imperat ives , In terrogat ives , Declara t ives , i f
there is any in the product ion. Hints and Need s ta tements descr ibe the type of Head Act .
Ty pes o f Hea d A c t wi l l be d iscussed in the nex t sec tion . The fo l lowing a re the ca tegor ie s o f
forms of Head Act to be invest igated here:
Forms o f the Head Ac t
(a) Imperat ives
(b) In terrogat ives
(c) Declaratives
The Head Acts used by the Bri t ish subjects were as fo l lows:
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REQUESTING IN BRITISH ENGLISH AND JAPANESE 679
3 0 -
i
2 0 -
1 0
0% e'
1 0 0 - /
9 0 -
8 0 -
7 0 -
6 0 -
5 0 -
4 0 -
/
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil
ii iii i iiii'i
|
a ) b )
I
c )
~ ] S i t u a ti o n 1
S i t u a t i o n 2
( a ) I m p e r a t i v e s
( b ) I n t e r r o g a t i v e s
( c ) D e e l a r a t i v e s
F o r m s
Fi g . 5 . F o rm s o f HA by the Br it i sh sub jec t s
As i s obv ious , In t e r roga t ives were t he mo s t p re fe r red fo rm in bo th s i t ua tions .
In t e r roga t ives g ive t he Heare r an op t ion to exe rc i se t he cho ice , so , m i t i ga t ing the fo rce o f
the reques t .
In s i t ua tion 1 , t he He ad Ac t w i th Dec la ra t i ves u sed nega t ion , I cou ld n ' t b o r row som e sa l t ,
cou ld I? And one o f t he Head Ac t s i n si t uat ion 2 wi th Dec la ra t i ves wa s w i th nega t ion ,
Y o u w o u l d n ' t p o s s ib l y b e a b le t o p u t t h e o t h e r o n e u p , w o u l d y o u ? A n d t h e se t w o w e r e
p r o d u c e d b y t he s a m e s u b je c t . N e g a t i v e s w e r e n o t f o u n d a n y w h e r e e l s e a n d n e i th e r w e r e
el l ip t ical const ruct ions.
T h e f o r m s o f t h e H e a d A c t s u s e d b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b je c t s w e r e a s f o l l ow s :
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680 SAEKO FUKUStUMA
1 0 0
9 0
8 0
7 0
6 0
4O
3 0
0
(a) (b)
i /:
(c)
S i t u a t i o n 1
S i t u a t i o n 2
( a ) I m p e r a t i v e s
( b ) I n t e r r o g a t i v e s
( c ) D e c l a r a t i v e s
F o r m s
F i g . 6 . F o r m s o f H A b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b je c ts
Al l t h ree fo rm s were used by the Japan ese sub jec t s , even thou gh In t e r roga t ives were m os t
f requen t ly used . Tw o Hea d Ac t s i n t he ca t egory o f In te r roga t ives and a l l t he Head A c t s i n
the ca t egory o f Dex la ra ti ves i n s i t ua tion 1 were wi th nega t ives , e .g . sh io o kash i te
ku rem asenk a (W on ' t you l end me some sa l t? ) As fo r t he e ll ip t ica l cons t ruc t ion , i t appea red
l m o s t e v e r y w h e r e in t he J a p a n e s e s a m p l e , e . g . k a s h i t e . ( L e n d ) c a n m e a n L e n d m e
s o m e s a l t. o r L e n d m e s o m e o f y o u r s a l t. H e r e t he o b j ec t n o u n s , m e a n d s o m e sa lt
a re mi ss ing . Th i s may be due to t he sen t ence cons t ruc t ion o f Japanese ; t ha t i s , i n Japan ese ,
i t i s no rmal t o omi t sub jec t s o r ob j ec t s a s l ong as t hey a re unders tood f rom con tex t .
Th ere fo re , i t ma y no t be poss ib l e t o ma ke a va l id com par i son be tween Japan ese and Br i t ish
requests in th is respect .
Th e ma jo r d i f fe rence be tween the fo rm s used by the Br i t ish sub jec t s and those b y the
Japanese sub jec t s was t ha t on ly t he Japanese sub jec t s u sed Impera t ives i n bo th s i t ua t ions .
Th i s a l so re l a te s to thc d i scuss ion s i n S t ra t egy types o f t he Head Ac t . Tha t i s , i t seem s tha t
among in -g roup members i n Japanese cu l tu re , d i rec t reques t s were f requen t ly used , because
so l ida r i ty i s h igh ly va lued .
Ty pes o f t he H c .ad Ac t s
In t h i s sec t ion , t he t ypes o f t he Head Ac t w i l l be i nves t i ga t ed , because t he same fo rm can
expre ss d if fe ren t t ypes o f Head A c t . Fo r i n s t ance , t he dec l a ra ti ve can be s ta t i ng S ' s
expec t a t ion o f H ' s do ing A (e .g . I wou ld apprec i a te it i f you wou ld open the win do w . ) , o r
the dec l a ra ti ve can g ive h in t s , (e .g . I t ' s ho t i n he re . ) an d bo th o f t hem fa l l i n to d i f fe ren t
ca t egor i e s o f reques t s , i . e . , conven t iona l and non-conven t iona l reques t s re spec t ive ly .
I t r i ed t o u se t he ca t egor i e s o f reques t s t ra t eg i es by Blum-Kulka , e t . a l . (1989 : 278-281) ,
bu t som et imes I found i t d i f f icu l t t o app ly t hem to t he Japanese da t a , because o f t he
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REQUE STING IN BRITISH ENGLISH AND JAPANESE 681
d i f f er e n c e s b e t w e e n J a p a n e s e a n d t h e o t h e r l a n g u a g e s u s e d i n C C S A R P . I fo u n d i t d i ff ic u lt
t o u se t he c l a ss i f i ca t i on by Blum-Kulka , e t . a l . I b i d . ) a l so because a l l t he examples
p rodu ced by the Br i t i sh sub jec t s fe ll i n to t he ca t egory o f P rep a ra to ry . The fo llowing i s
the de f in i t i on and exam ples o f P repa ra to ry
I b i d .
: 280 ) .
Preparatory: The utterance contains reference to a preparatory condition for the feasibility of the Request,
typically one of ability, w illingness, O possib ility, as conventionalized in the given language.
Can I borrow yo ur notes?
Could yo u possibly get you r assignment done this week?
I was w ondering if you w ould give me a lift.
In ana lys ing the t ypes o f t he reques t s t ra t eg i es u sed in t h i s s t udy , I t r i ed t o se t up the
fo l lowing ca t egor i e s , based on speaker ' s i n t en t ion :
(a ) S t a t i ng S ' s des i re
e . g . O p e n t h e w i n d o w .
(b - 1 ) As k ing H ' s w i l l , des i re , o r w i l l i ngness t o do A
e . g . W i l l y o u o p e n t h e w i n d o w ?
( b - 2 ) A s k i n g H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r S ' s r e q u e s ti n g H t o d o A
e . g . C a n I a s k y o u t o o p e n th e w i n d o w ?
( b - 3 ) A s k i n g H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r S ' s d o i n g A
e .g . Co u ld I bo r row your sal t?
( b - 4 ) A s k i n g H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r t he t h ir d p a r t y ' s d o i n g A
e . g . C o u l d o n e o f m y f r i e n d s st a y in y o u r r o o m ?
( b - 5 ) A s k i n g H ' s s t a t e
e . g . D o y o u h a v e a n y s a l t I c ou l d b o r r o w ?
(b -6 ) A sk ing wi th imp l i c it re fe rence t o A
e .g . Can you th ink abou t i t ? (kangae t e ku remasuka)
( c - l ) Q u e s t i o n i n g H ' s d o i n g A
e . g . I w o n d e r i f y o u c o u l d o p e n t h e w i n d o w .
( c - 2) S t a t i n g S ' s e x p e c ta t io n o f H ' s d o i n g A
e .g . I wou ld apprec i a te it i f you wou ld op en i lae w in dow .
(c -3 ) S t a t i ng S ' s des i re
e .g . I cou ldn ' t bo r row som e sa l t , cou ld I ?
(c -4 ) S t a t i ng tha t H can do A
e . g . Y o u w o u l d n ' t p o s s i b ly b e a b le t o p u t th e o t h e r o n e u p , w o u l d y o u ?
(c -5 ) Need s t a t emen t
e .g . I need your he lp .
(c -6 ) H in t s
e .g . I t ' s ho t i n he re .
(a ) , (b ) and (c ) i n t he above ca t egor i e s co r respond to t he c l a ss i f i ca t i on o f t he fo rms o f t he
He ad A c t in t he sec t ion , Fo rm s o f t he Hea d Ac t.
Th e fo l low ing a re t he t ypes o f th i~ He ad A c t s emp loyed by the Br i t ish sub jec ts :
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682 SA EK O F U K U S H I
1 0 0 % - -
9 0 % -
8 0 % -
7 0 % -
6 0 % -
5 0 % -
4 0 %
3 0 %
2 0 %
1 0 %
0 %
, . , , . ,
iilill
i i i i l
i iili
~i
: i : i : i
: :
/ '
I I I I I I I F I I
T y p e s
Fig. 7. Types of HA by the Bri t i sh subjects
S i t u a t i o n 1
S i t u a t i o n 2
( a ) S ' s des i r e
(b - 1 ) H ' s wi l l
( b - 2 ) H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r S ' s
r e q u e s t i n g H
( b - 3 ) H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r S ' s
d o i n g A
( b - 4 ) H ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r t h e
t h i r d p a r t y
( b - 5 ) H ' s s t a t e
( b - 6 ) I m p l i c i t r e f .
( c - 1 ) H ' s d o i n g A
( c - 2) S ' s e x p e c t a t i o n
( c - 3 ) S ' s d e s i r e
(c- .4) H ca n do A
( c - 5 ) N e e d s t a t e m e n t
( c - 6 ) H i n t s
In s i tua t ion 1 , (b -3) Ask ing H ' s perm iss ion for S ' s reques t ing H to do A (e .g . Could I
borrow your sa l t ? ), was m ost frequent ly used , fo llowed by (b-5) Asking H ' s s t at e (e .g . Do
you ha ve any sa l t I could borrow ?) . In si tua t ion 2 , i n which the degree of imposi ti on
increased , (b- l ) Asking H ' s wi l l , des i re , o r wi l l i ngness t o do A (e .g . Would you mind
put t ing one of my f r iends up for t he n igh t?) , w as most f requent ly used , fo l lowed by (b-4)
Asking H ' s permiss ion for t he th i rd par ty t o do A (e .g . Could one of my f r i ends s t ay in
your room, p l ease?) .
Th e fol low ing are the resul t s of the types of the He ad Acts used by the Japa nese subjects:
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R E Q U E S T I N G I N B R I T I SH E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E 6 83
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0% I I I i i I J i ~ i I I /
. . - cq ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~
Situation 1
Situation 2
(a) S's de sire
(b- 1) H's will
(b-2) H's permission for S's
requesting H
(b-3) H's perm ission for S's
doing A
(b-4) H's permission for the
third party
(b-5) H's state
(b-6) Im plicit ref.
(c-1) H's doing A
(c-2) S's expectation
(c-3) S's desire
c-4) H can d o A
c-5) Ne ed statement
c-6) Hints
Types
F i g . 8 . T y p e s o f H A b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e c ts
I n s i t u a t io n 1 , ( a ) S t a t i n g S ' s d e s i r e ( e . g . k a s h i t e , L e n d ) , w a s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d ,
f o l l o w e d b y ( c - l ) Q u e s t i o n i n g H ' s d o i n g A ( e . g . k a s h i t e m o r a e n a i k a n a a , I w o n d e r i f y o u
c o u l d l e n d . . . ) . I n s i tu a t io n 2 , (c - 1) Q u e s t i o n i n g H ' s d o i n g A w a s m o s t f r e q u e n tl y u s e d
( e . g . t o m e t e k u r e n a i k a s h i r a , I w o n d e r if y o u c o u ld p u t u p . . . ) , f o l l o w e d b y ( b - 3 ) A s k i n g
H ' s p e r m i s s i o n fo r S ' s d o i n g A ( e .g . h e y a o k a sh i te m o r a e m a s e n k a , C o u l d y o u le n d m e
y o u r r o o m ? ) . T h e p r e fe r r e d ty p e s o f H e a d A c t s a re d i f f e re n t fr o m t h e o n e s u s e d b y t h e
B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s .
T v o e s o f S u p p o r t iv e M o v e s
B l u m - K u l k a , e t. al . ( 1 98 9 : 2 8 7 - 2 8 8 ) d e f i n e s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s a s f o l l o w s a n d l i st t he
f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s :
In using specific types of
Support ive Move ,
a speaker intends to mit igate or aggravate his requesL
Suppo rt ive m oves are external to the Head Act occurring ei ther before or after i t .
M i t iga t ing Suppor t ive Moves :
(a) Preparator
I 'd like to ask you some th ing . . .
(b ) Get t ing a p recom mitment
Could you do m e a favor?
(c) Gro unde r reasons, explanations or just ificat ions
Judith ,
I m issed cla ss yesterday.
Could I borrow yo ur notes?
(d) Disarmer
I know you don t l ike lending out your notes, bu t cou ld you make an excep t ion th i s t ime?
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6 8 4 S A E K O F U K U S H ] ] k ~
( e ) P r o m i s e o f r e w ar d
C o u l d y o u g i v e m e a l i f t h o m e ?
I ' l l p i t c h i n o n s o m e g a s .
( f) I m p o s i t i o n m i n i m i z e r
W o u l d y o u g i v e m e a li f t , b u t o n l y i f y o u ' r e g o i n g m y w a y .
A g g r a v a t i n g s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s
I n s u l t
Y o u ' v e a l w a y s b e e n a d i r t y p i g , s o c l e a n u p
"Ha'eat
M o v e t h a t e a r
i f y o u d o n ' t w a n t a ti c k e t
M o r a l i z i n g
I f o n e s h a r e s a f l a t o n e s h o u l d b e p r ep a r ed t o p u l l o n e ' s w e i g h t i n c l e a n i n g i t , s o g e t o n w i t h t h e w a s l fi n g
up~
I n t hi s s t u d y , n o a g g r a v a t in g s u p p o r ti v e m o v e s w e r e f o u n d . T h e y a r e h i g h l y u n l ik e l y i n
these con tex t s , because t he reques t e r i s seek ing benef i t f rom the reques t ee . On ly mi t iga ting
suppo r t i ve mo ves wi ll be d i scussed he re . I added one m ore ca t egory to the above
ca t egor i sa t ions o f suppor t i ve moves : (g ) Ava i l ab i li ty check ing . Som e suppor t i ve mo ves
wh ich check the H ' s ava i lab i li ty t o pu rsue t he reques t fa ll i n to t h is ca t egory .
e .g . Are you go ing to be he re a t t he weekend?
Th e fo l lowing a re t he re su l ts o f t he ana lys i s o f Br i ti sh sub jec t s ' u se o f supp or t i ve m oves :
100% -
9 0 %
8 0 %
7 0 %
6 0 %
5 0 %
4 0 %
3 0 %
2 0 %
10%
0%
i l
(a) b ) (c) d ) (e) (f)
g )
Si tua t i on 1
S i tua t i on 2
(a) Prepara tor
(b ) P recom m i tm en t
(c) Grounder
(d) Disarmer
(e) Reward
(f ) Imp. Minimizer
(g ) A va i l ab i l i t y
Supportive oves
Fi g . 9 . S M by the Bri t i sh subjects
Gr oun der wa s t he mo s t f requen t ly used suppor t i ve m ove bo th i n si t ua tion 1 and s i t ua tion 2 .
Othe r t ypes o f suppor t i ve mo ves , such as D i sa rm er (e .g . Th i s i s a sk ing a lo t . ) and
Ava i l ab i li t y check ing (e .g . Are you g o ing to be he re a t t he week end? ) w ere added to
Gr oun der whe n the deg ree o f impos i t i on inc reased in s it ua t ion 2 . Th e num ber o f t he
suppo r t i ve mov es inc reased as the deg ree o f impos i t ion inc reased . Th e to t al num ber o f t he
suppo r t i ve m oves i n s i t ua tion 1 wa s f i ve , and tha t i n s i t ua tion 2 was twen ty -o ne .
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R E Q U E S T I N G I N B R I T I S H E N G L I S H A N D J A P A N E S E 6 8 5
T h e f o l lo w i n g a r e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s ' u s e o f t h e s u p p o r t i v e
m o v e s :
1 0 0 % - /
9 0 % -
8 0 % -
7 0 % -
6 0 % -
5 0 % -
i,
4 0 -
30% -~
2 0 %
1 0 %
0% '
Ca) Cb) (c)
(d) (e) (f) (g)
S i t u a t i o n 1
S i t u a t i o n 2
(a ) P repara to r
( b ) P r e c o m m i t m e n t
( c ) G r o u n d e r
(d) D isa rmer
(e ) Reward
( f ) I m p . M i n i m i z e r
( g ) A v a i l a b i l i t y
S u p p o r t i v e M o v e s
F i g . 1 0 . S M b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s
A s w a s s e e n i n th e B r i ti s h su b j e c t s ' u s e o f s u p p o r t iv e m o v e s , m o r e s u p p o r t iv e m o v e s w e r e
u s e d as t h e d e g r e e o f i m p o s i t i o n i n c r e a s e d , G r o u n d e r b e i n g t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d
s u p p o r t i v e m o v e t y p e i n b o t h s i t u a t i o n s . T h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s u s e d i n
s i t u a ti o n 1 w a s t h i rt e e n , a n d t h a t i n s it u a t io n 2 w a s t w e n t y - f i v e . A s f o r t h e o t h e r t y p e s o f
s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s , s o m e e x a m p l e s o f I m p o s i t io n M i n i m i z e r u s e d b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e ct s
w e r e a s f o l l o w s :
S i t ua t i on 1
m osh i yok a t t a r a ( I f i t i s a ll ri gh t )
S i t ua t i on 2
m osh i yok a t t a r a ( I f i t i s a ll r igh t )
c h o t t o z u z u s h i i k a m o s h i re n a i k e d o ( I t m a y b e a s k i n g t o o m u c h )
I n si t u a ti o n 1 , I m p o s i t i o n M i n i m i z e r s a lo n e w e r e u s e d , b u t i n s i tu a t i o n 2 w i t h h i g h e r d e g r e e
o f i m p o s i t io n , I m p o s i t i o n M i n i m i z e rs w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y o t h e r su p p o r t i v e m o v e s , s u c h
a s G r o u n d e r s .
e . g . G r o u n d e r + H e a d A c t + I m p o s i t i o n M i n i m i z e r
G r o u n d e r + I m p o s i t i o n M i n i m i z e r + H e a d A c t
A v a i l a b i li t y c h e c k i n g w a s u s e d o n l y i n s it u a t io n 1 b y t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s .
e . g . s h i o m o t t e ta r a ( I f y o u h a v e s a l t)
I n s i t u a ti o n 1 , i n w h i c h A v a i l a b il i ty c h e c k i n g w a s u s e d , n o o t h e r s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s
o c c u r r i n g
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686 SAEKO FUKUSt t IMA
D I S C U S S I O N
Ove ra l l , t he hypot he s i s t ha t t he h i ghe r t he de gre e o f i mpos i t i on , t he more po l i t e ne s s
s t ra t e g ie s a re e m p l o y e d b o t h i n E n g l i s h a n d J a p a n e s e w a s c o n f i r m e d . I t c a n b e s a i d t h at
p r o d u c t i o n i n s it u a ti o n 2 w a s m o r e e la b o r a t e, w i t h m o r e s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s , b o t h i n E n g l i s h
a nd in J a pa ne s e , t ha n t ha t i n s i tua t i on 1 . Ho we ve r , a c l ose r inve s t i ga t i on o f p rodu c t i on i n
E n g l i s h a n d i n J a p a n e s e r e v ea l ed s o m e d if f e r en c e s . T h e B r i t is h s u b j e c t s u s e d m o r e
m i t i g a ti n g s u p p o r t iv e m o v e s a n d m o r e c o n v e n t i o n al f o r m s t h a n t h e J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s.
M o r e d i r ec t f o r m s a n d l es s s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s w e r e u s e d b y t he J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s , e v e n
t h o u g h t h e n u m b e r o f s u p p o r t i v e m o v e s i n c re a s e d in s it u a ti o n 2 .
The t w o s i tua t i ons use d in t h i s s t udy we re a s se s se d a s be i ng s i mi l a r i n t e rms of t he de gre e
of i mpos i t i on be t we e n B r i t i sh a nd Ja pa ne se c u l t u re s , a nd o t he r f a c t o r s , suc h a s soc i a l
d i s t a nc e a nd re la t ive pow e r be t we e n S a nd H w e re se t a s e qua l . Th e re fo re , t he d i f f e re nc e s
be t we e n t he B r i t ish sub j e c t s a nd t he Ja pa n e se sub j e c t s i n r e que s t s t r a te g i e s c a n b e
c ons i de re d a s be i ng un i nf l ue nc e d by d i f fe re n t pe rc e p t i ons o f t he s i t ua t i ons i n t e rms of t he
d e g r e e o f i m p o s i t io n .
As t he r e su l t s sh ow e d , ove ra l l t he Ja pa n e se sub j e c t s p rodu c t i on t e nde d t o be mo re d i re c t
t ha n t ha t o f t he B r i t i sh sub j e c t s . Th i s m a y c onf i rm t he d i sc uss i on i n S tr .a t egy t ype s o f He a .d
Ac t , t ha t i s , i n J a pa ne se soc i e t y , a mong i n -group me mbe rs so l i da r i t y i s h i gh l y va l ue d a nd
pos i t i ve po l i t e ne s s a nd go i ng ba l d-on- re c ord a re e mp l oye d a s po l i t e ne s s s tr a t e g i e s . The use
of ba l d -on- re c o rd s t r a t e g i es c a n show t ha t S a nd H a re no t d i s t a n t , bu t i ns t e a d c a n s how
t h at S a n d H a r e o n c o m m o n g r o u n d .
Ac c o rd i ng t o B ro wn a nd Le v i nso n (1978 : 70) , r e que s t s a re i n tr i ns i ca l l y fa c e - t h re a te n i ng
a c t i v i ti e s , t h re a t e n ing t he a dd re s se e s ne ga t i ve f a c e . Le e c h (19 83: 106 ) c on t e nds t ha t
re que s t s , whi c h a re c a t e gor i z e d a s d i re c t i ve s , c ompr i se a c a t e gory o f i l l oc u t i ons i n whi c h
ne ga t i ve po l i te ne s s i s i mpor t a n t . In t he se po l i t e ne s s t he or i e s , i t ha s be e n wi d e l y a c c e p t e d
t ha t r e que s t s a re FTAs , a nd t he re fore , va r i ous po l i t e ne s s s t r a t e g i e s a re c hose n i n o rde r t o
a vo i d o r mi t i ga t e t he poss i b l e t h re a t s t o f a c e . B l u m- Ku l ka , e t . a l. (1985 : 114) s ta te :
rhe variety of wa ys to m ake requests is prob ably motivated by the need to minimize the imposition
involved in the act itself. Ill choo sing a strategy located at s om e point on the con tinutun o f d irectness, the
speaker reveals his o r her appraisal of the so cial situation, mid the degree to wlfich the situation cal ls for
nfinimization of the imposition involved.
S i f i a nou (1992: 99) a dm i t s t he poss i b i l i t y o f r e que s t s be i ng FT As , bu t i t is i n t e re s t i ng t o
no t e t ha t she c ons i de r s r e que s t s a s i mpl y i ng c l ose ne ss a nd i n t i ma c y .
How far, ho wev er, is it a valid assumption tha t requests always threaten the addressee s negative face and,
therefore, to w hat extent is ne gative politeness imp ortant? It cou ld be argued that this will be the case only
when negat ive face is mo re important and valued mo re than posi tive face . Req uests can also imply
l o s ene s s
and intimacy, in the sense that one must feel close enough to ask somebody else to do something,
and consequently pos itive politeness is impo rtant, too.
W he n re qu e s t s func t i on t o i mp l y c l ose n e ss , t he l i ngu i s ti c c ho i c e s a re a s fo l l ow s : (S i f i a nou ,
1992: 99)
...using a bald impe rative in a construc tion including a diminu tive may indicate concern for the addressee s
positive face throug h the em phasis of affection.
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Si f i a nou (1993: 72 -73) a l so s t a t e s t ha t i n Gre e k t he re a re r e que s t s wh i c h c a nn ot be
pe rc e i ve d a s f a c e - th re a t e n ing :
Requesting such things, then, cann ot be perceived as a face-threatening, impo sing action a nd , consequently,
off-record requests in such c ontexts do not function to soften an imposition, since there is n o m p o s t o n
involved. (author s emphasis)
(Ibid. :73)
Th e a bove d i sc uss i o n re l a t e s t o t he t ype s o f soc ie t ie s : wh a t i s h i gh l y va l ue d i n e a c h soc i e t y .
A n d a l s o i n t he s a m e s o c i e t y , t h e re m a y b e r e q u e s t s w h i c h f u n c t i o n a s F T A s a n d r e q u e s t s
w h i c h i m p l y c l o s e n e s s . W h e t h e r c e r ta i n r e q u e s t s b e c o m e F F A s o r n o t m a y a l s o d e p e n d o n
t he de gre e o f i mpos i t i on , a nd t he r e l a t ionsh i p be t we e n t he i n t e ra ct a n t s . In J a pa ne se soc i e t y ,
f o r e x a m p l e , a m o n g i n - g r o u p m e m b e r s , s o l i d a ri ty i s h i g h l y v a l u e d .
Deference politeness is one of the salient features of Japanes e culture, b ut on the ot he r hand , solidarity
politeness is also impo rtant, especially when we interact with people such as fam ily mem bers, close friends
and close colleagues. (Fukushima, 1995: 42)
I n s u c h a c a s e , r e q u e s t s c a n f u n c ti o n t o i m p l y c l o s e n e s s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e u s e o f b a ld
i m p e r a ti v e s i s p o s s i b l e . A s m a n y o t h er s t u d ie s h a v e s h o w e d ( e . g . N a k a n e , 1 9 7 0 , L e b r a ,
1976 , We t z e l , 1985 ) , g roup i de n t i ty i s ve ry imp or t a n t i n J a pa n e se soc i e t y . In -grou p/ ou t -
g roup d i s t i nc ti on i s r e f l e ct e d in la ngu a ge c ho i c e . We t z e l (1985: 156) sug ge s t s a s fo l l ows :
Japanese tlfink abou t and coglfitively represent social situations in term s of their group rather than individual
iden tity ....
W h e n r e q u e s t s a r e m a d e t o o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s , a r e q u e s t e r m a y f e a r F T A s , b e c a u s e
d i s t a nc e i s h i gh l y va l ue d . Th e re fore , a r e que s t e r ma y c hoose ne ga t i ve po l i t e ne s s , o r o f f -
r e c o rd p o li t en e s s w i th m i t i g a ti n g d e v i c e s . T h i s m a y , h o w e v e r , h a v e t o d o w i t h t h e d e g r e e
of i mpos i t i on o f r e que s t s , i . e . , r e que s t s wi t h h i gh de gre e o f i mpos i t i on ma y l i ke l y t h re a t e n
t h e r e q u e s t e e s f a c e , b u t r e q u e s ts w i t h lo w d e g r e e o f i m p o s i t io n m a y n o t d o s o , a n d t h is
di f fe rence i s re f lec ted in the choice of reques t s t ra tegies .
Po l i t e ne s s doe s no t ne c e s sa r i l y me a n t he use o f i nd i re c t ne s s o r ne ga t i ve po l i t e ne s s . The
s t u d ie s b y B l u m - K u l k a ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d b y L e e - W o n g ( 1 9 9 4 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , i ll u s tr a te t h is . L e e -
Wong (1994: 509) s t a t e s a s fo l l ows :
From the Ch inese viewpoint, negative politeness is irrelevant in a con text where bein g indirect can be
perceived as inappropriate - (a) where the req uest is deem ed to be ea sily carried ou t, (b) w here bo th
interactants are familiar or socially close, (c) where the speaker is in a po sition o f pow er or au thority.
One of t he i mpor t a n t i s sue s i n t h i s s t udy wa s t he use o f r e que s t s t r a t e g i e s by B r i t i sh a nd
J a p a n e s e s u b j e c t s , w h i c h r e l a te s to a d i s ti n c ti o n o f i n - g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p .
H o w e v e r , o n e o f th e l im i t a ti o n s o f t h is s tu d y w a s t h a t i n - g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p w a s
not c l e a r ly de f i ne d . In fu t u re s t ud i e s g roup m e m be r sh i p ne e ds t o be c le a r l y de f i ne d a nd
a l so ne e d i ng i nve s t i ga t i ng a re (1 ) whe t he r t he re a re a ny d i f fe re nc e s i n t he de f i n i t i on o f i n -
g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p b e t w e e n B r i t i s h a n d J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e s ; ( 2 ) w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e
a n y d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e b o u n d a r y o f i n - g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p b e t w e e n B r i t i s h a n d
J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e s , i. e . , w h o a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e in - g r o u p o r o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s i n e a ch
c u l tu r e ; ( 3 ) w h e t h e r a n d h o w t h e d i f f er e n c e s o f i n - g r o u p / o u t - g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p d e f i n it io n
a nd d i s t i nc ti on i n f l ue nc e t he r e a l is a t ion o f po l i t e ne s s , i f the re a re a ny d i f fe re nc e s . In t h i s
s t ud y , on l y s i t ua ti ons to ma ke a r e que s t to a pe r so n i n e qua l s t a t us we re us e d . A
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membership distinction may also apply to people of equal status, but in future studies the
situations with different social distance and relative pow er between S and H also need to be
investigated.
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