-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
1/50
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
2/50
All rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying
or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, in this case SDC, Kathmandu
or Intercooperation Nepal.
Photos:
Fritz BergerSurya Kumar Maharjan
Cover:
Rabin Raj Niraula
Design:
Bidur Phuyal
9841202861
Tek Shrestha
Printing:
Print and art ServicePutalisadak, Kathmandu
Ph: 4244419, 4239154, 9849142874Email: [email protected]
Publisher:
Nepal Swiss Community Forestry Project, SDC, Intercooperation
Nepal, 2011
NSCFP, 2011.
ISBN : 978-9937-2-3647-8
The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represents
those of SDC or Intercooperation. Any ambiguous statement if found is requested to be
perceived with kind consideration.
Authors:Rabin Raj Niraula( [email protected] )Surya Kumar Maharjan( [email protected] )
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
3/50
Summary
The general notion that the forest cover has increased with the introduction of
Community Forestry Program has been fully supported by the findings of photo
monitoring of the forests along the Lamosanghu - Jiri road corridor. To verify this
results, NSCFP, using the Landsat TM imageries of 1990 and 2010, has undertaken
a Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System based quantitative analysis
of forest cover change in Dolakha district. The study focused on the three clusters
(Bhimeshwor, Singati and Thulopatal) of Dolakha district covering a total area of
27,902.03 ha in 10 VDCs. The study results showed that the forest density has
improved in all three studied clusters between 1990 and 2010. The rate of conversion
of sparse forest into dense forest has been found between 1.13 - 3.39 % per year.Similarly, the rate of conversion of non -forest area into forest has been found between
1.11 - 1.96 % per year . Further, the study also compared the patterns of forest cover
change among different management regimes such as community forests, government
forests and private forests, which showed that the rate of conversion of non-forest
areas into forests in the community managed forests is higher than that in the
government forests and the private forests.
This publication summarizing the results of the current study is expected to benefit
everyone those who are interested in community forestry and its impact on forest
cover. The current study - though has been limited in its scope from its geographic
coverage point of view - has provided a good indication of positive impact ofcommunity forestry on the forest cover of the area. Further extension of similar
analysis in the other parts of the project districts and Nepal as a whole is undoubtedly
necessary for assessment of general impact of community forestry on forest cover
change.
S
um
m
ary
Authors
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 i
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
4/50
Acknowledgements
We would like to take an opportunity to extend our sincere gratitude to all thoseindividuals and organizations without whose untiring support; this study would not
have been possible. To two of our technical experts Mr. Rabin Raj Niraula and Mr.
Surya Kumar Maharjan for coordinating field work, carrying out analysis and putting
the results of the study together to bring them as this publication; ICIMOD for
cooperation and providing forest boundary data of community forests of Charnawati
watershed; Mr. Hammad Gilani and Mr. Him Lal Shrestha, ICIMOD for technical
advices and support during the analysis process; the staffs of District Forest Office,
Dolakha especially DFO Kedar Nath Dahal for their constant cooperation; GPS survey
team whose hard work made forest boundary survey possible; the local CFUGs, the
FECOFUN, the staffs of NSCFP, Kathmandu and Dolakha for their cooperation and
support; and last but not the least to Dr. Jane Carter; Dr. Bharat Kumar Pokharel, Mrs.
Rudriksha Rai Parajuli, Mr. Brahma Dhoj Gurung and Mrs. Usha Dahal for their
invaluable comments and suggestions.
Nepal Swiss Community Forestry Project
Ack
nowledgem
ents
II Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
5/50
1. Introduction 1
1.4. Objectives 2
2. Study area 3
3. Methodology 4
3.1. Data collection 4
3.1.1. Image acquisition 4
3.1.2. Aerial photographs 4
3.1.3. Digital layers of topographic maps 4
3.1.4. Global Positioning System (GPS) survey 5
3.2. Data analysis 5
3.2.1. Image classification 5
3.2.2. Verification and post classification: 6
3.2.3. Forest boundary mapping 7
3.2.4. Map analysis and statistical data management 7
3.3. Limitations of the study 7
4. Results 9
4.1. Land cover status of the study area 9
4.2. Forest cover change 1990-2010 14
4.3. Overall forest cover change 1990-2010 15
4.4. Forest cover change in community forests and other forests 18
4.5. Forest cover change in community forests, government forests and
private forests of Laduk VDC 22
4.5.1. Land cover status of Laduk VDC by management regime 22
4.5.2. Forest cover change in Laduk VDC by management regime 24
5. Drivers of forest cover change 26
5.1. Forest improvement 26
5.2. Forest gain / Increase in forest area 29
5.3. Forest degradation 30
5.4. Forest loss / Decrease in forest area 32
6. Conclusion 33
7. Bibliography 34
Annex 35
Table ofContents
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 III
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
6/50
List of Figures
Figure 1 : Khorthali Community Forest, Charikot in 1989 and 2010 2
Figure 2 : Study area map showing locations of three study clusters in Dolakha district 3
Figure 3 : Toposheet index map of Nepal 5
Figure 4 : Flowchart showing detailed methodology 8
Figure 5 : Land cover maps of the study area A. Bhimeshwor cluster; B. Singati cluster and C.
Thulopatal cluster 11
Figure 6 : Land cover status of Bhimeshwor cluster 13
Figure 7 : Land cover status of Singati Cluster 13
Figure 8 : Land cover status of Thulopatal cluster 13
Figure 9 : Forest cover change in Bhimeshwor cluster (1990 - 2010) 15
Figure 10 : Forest cover change in Singati cluster (1990 - 2010) 16
Figure 11 : Forest cover change in Thulopatal cluster (1990 - 2010) 16
Figure 12 : Forest cover change in community forests and other forests by cluster (1990 - 2010) 20
Figure 13 : Forest cover change in Laduk VDC (1990-2010) 24
Figure 14 : Forest cover change in Suspa Chhyamawati VDC (1990-2010) 27
Figure 15 : Reclamation of landslide areas and river banks along Charnawati River, Bhimeshwor cluster
between 1990 and 2010 28
Figure 16 : Trees along the river banks, Charnawati River, Bhimeshwor cluster (2011) 28
Figure 17 : Trees in the terrace raisers of farmland, Ramkot, Bhimeshwor Municipality (2011) 29
Figure 18 : Reclamation of abandoned land, Makaibari, Bhimeshwor Municipality (2011) 30
Figure 19 : Forest loss due to uncontrolled and unplanned road construction between 1990 and 2010 in
Kamalamai CFUG, Laduk VDC, Singati cluster 31
List of Tables
Table 1 : Details of Landsat TM imageries used for the study 4
Table 2 : Details of topographic maps used for the study 5
Table 3 : Land cover classification scheme 6
Table 4 : Land cover status by cluster (1990 and 2010) 12
Table 5 : Forest cover change classification scheme 14
Table 6 : Forest cover change by cluster (1990 -2010) 17
Table 7 : Forest cover change in community forest and other forests by cluster (1990 - 2010) 21
Table 8 : Land cover status of Laduk VDC by management regime (1990 - 2010) 23
Table 9 : Forest cover change in Laduk VDC by management regime (1990 - 2010) 24
IV Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
7/50
1.Introduction
The history of formalized State forest management in Dolakha district goes back to 1962 that is much earlier thanthe inception of Community Forestry Program in Nepal. The earlier forestry activities were focused on regeneration
of degraded forests; afforestation of government land and improvement of fodder resources. Later coming to the
late 1970s, it was realized that local peoples participation is crucial for the efficient management of forests in rural
Nepal, where they are an integral part of livelihoods. Consequently, Panchayat Forest (PF) and Panchayat Protected
Forest (PPF) were enforced by then single party Panchayat political and administrative system that could be taken
as an early but limited form of community forestry activities in Nepal. Later in 1988, the Nepal Government
introduced the Master Plan for Forestry Sector (MPFS), which highlighted the possibility of handing over 61% of
Nepals forests to local management as community forests. The MPFS 1988 also foresaw that the Community Forestry
Program would be mainly implemented in hills of Nepal, as one important, but not the only forest management
option. Later for the further development of Community Forestry Program in Nepal, the Nepal government made
special provisions for community forests in Section 5 of Forest Act 1992 and Section 4 of Forest Regulations 1994.
Following the Forest Regulations 1994, Community Forestry Directives were introduced in 1995. Since then, the
Community Forestry Program is continuously being implemented in the hilly districts of Nepal, Dolakha district
being one of them.
The 1990s was the decade during which the Community Forestry Program took real momentum in Nepal. It was
the same decade in which the Nepal Swiss Community Forestry Project (NSCFP) started its activities in Dolakha
district. NSCFP that has been in operation for the last two decades (19902011) is phasing out by the end of June
2011. The project support to Dolakha has already phased out in 2010 with only minor activities continuing to the
end of the project. NSCFP, during last two decades, working under multi-partnership approach, i.e. working together
with local District Forest Office (DFO) and its other local partners, has made a substantial contribution for the
development of community forestry program in its project districts and ultimately in Nepal. Much has changed in
development thinking and also development needs over the last two decades. This is clearly reflected in the waythe project focus shifted over time from being primarily technical and environmental in early years, to focusing
more importantly on social needs especially poverty alleviation and promotion of equity and good governance -
in later years.
In general, it is perceived that the forest cover has increased with the increase in the plantation and management
of forests, and subsequent improved natural regeneration in the community forests with the introduction of Community
Forestry Program (Fig. 1). Supporting this general notion, photo monitoring of Lamosanghu - Jiri road corridor has
effectively demonstrated the visible improvement in the forest cover in the area over the past few decades (Pokharel
and Mahat, 2009). However, this is only a qualitative analysis and a detailed quantitative analysis to assess the
overall change in forest cover is lacking. With the above background, NSCFP carried out a Remote Sensing (RS)
and Geographic Information System (GIS) based quantitative forest cover change analysis to assess the rate of change
of forest cover in Dolakha district over past two decades i.e. 1990 and 2010, as a part of its process of overall projectanalysis and documentation.
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 1
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
8/50
2 Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
Figure 1: Khorthali Community Forest, Charikot in 1989 and 2010
adapted from Pokharel and Mahat, 2009.
1989
2010
1.1. Objectives
Using Landsat data of 1990 and 2010; and Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS)
technologies, the study intended
1) To prepare digital forest cover maps of the year 1990 and 2010,2) To prepare digital forest boundary maps of community forests and other identifiable forests in the study
area, and
3) To find the patterns of forest cover change between 1990 and 2010 in the study area. The patterns of forest
cover change were analyzed by management regime i.e. forest cover change in community forests and other
forests. Further, a small sub-sample (Laduk VDC) was used to carry out management regime-wise comparison
of forest cover change patterns in community forests, government forests (i.e. national forests other than
community forests) and private forests.
2 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
9/50
2. Study area
Figure 2: Study area map showing locations of three study clusters in Dolakha district. Location of
Dolakha district in Nepal is shown in inset.
The study focused in three clusters (project defined specific geographic areas comprised of few local political units)namely Bhimeshwor, Singati and Thulopatal of Dolakha district. Bhimeshwor cluster is comprised of a municipality:
Bhimeshwor municipality and four Village Development Committees (VDCs): Boch, Lakuridanda, Magapauwa and
Suspa Chhyamawati; Singati cluster is comprised of three VDCs: Laduk, Lamidanda and Suri; and Thulopatal cluster
is comprised of two VDCs: Hawa and Thulopatal. The study thus focused on those nine VDCs and a municipality
of Dolakha district (Fig. 2). Dolakha district was chosen for this study because it contains some of the most mature
Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs), with areas of forest that have been managed as community forests for
well over ten years although, of course, there are also areas of forest that have been handed over more recently.
Broadly speaking, the community forests of Bhimeshwor cluster have been under local management for the longest
time followed by those of Thulopatal and Singati clusters, although a differentiated analysis according to when
handover took place was not included in this study it being a too complicated variable.
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 3
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
10/50
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
11/50
Table 2: Details of topographic maps used for the study.
SN Toposheet ID
1 2785 08
2 2786 01
3 2786 02
4 2786 03
5 2786 05 (A,B,C,D)
6 2786 06
7 2786 07
8 2786 09 (A,B)
9 2886 13
Figure 3: Toposheet index map of Nepal
3.1.4. Global Positioning System (GPS) survey
It is required by the law that all community forests are surveyed before they are handed over to the designated
CFUG for management. However, it is not regular practice to conduct such surveys using GPS rather the
chain and compass method is normally used. Although in some cases a sketch map appears to have been
submitted, a rapid field test of existing forest boundary maps indicated that they are not sufficiently reliable
to allow direct digitization by comparison with other maps. Consequently, field collection of digital information
of forest boundaries became necessary.
GPS survey was intensively applied for the collection of digital information of forest boundaries in the study
area. For this, 21 local individuals were trained to use GPS. Trained individuals were then mobilized in teamsof 2 persons each for the forest boundary survey. Geographic information thus acquired i.e. latitude and
longitude information of forest boundaries of all the surveyed forests in the study area was further processed
to produce forest boundary maps. The forest boundary survey was limited to the forests which had not been
thus surveyed at the time of study. In case of the forests which were already digitally surveyed the forest
boundary maps were acquired from the respective sources, International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD) being one of the main sources of such information. The forest boundary maps of
community forests in Charnawati watershed, which covers major portions of Bhimeshwor Municipality, Boch,
Lakuridanda and Magapauwa VDCs, were acquired from ICIMOD. The community forest maps included in
the operational plans available at the DFO, Dolakha served as basis for verifying the forest boundary maps
prepared from the GPS survey data.
3.2. Data analysis
3.2.1. Image classification
The geo-referenced Landsat TM imageries acquired from the USGS-EROS archive consist of seven layers, one
for each of seven spectral bands. These seven layers were stacked to produce seven band composite imageries.
These imageries were then classified using ENVI 4.2 application (ITT Visual Information Solutions, Colorado).
As the study team was highly familiar with the field situations and there was plenty of secondary information
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 5
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
12/50
Table 3: Land cover classification scheme
SN Land cover classes Description
1 Dense forest Areas covered with trees with>40 % crown cover
2 Sparse forest Areas covered with sparsely distributed trees with 10 - 40 % crown cover
3 Agriculture Cultivated areas, settlements, roads and other areas not included in other classes
4 Grassland Open areas with short vegetation, areas may even have few scattered trees
5 Barren land Areas with no vegetation cover, stock quarry, stony areas, uncultivated
agricultural lands6 Sand Sand and gravel deposits along the riverbanks
7 Water bodies Perennial rivers, ponds, lakes; rivers without water or very little water may
appear in barren land category and small streams with trees along the bank
may appear in sparse forest
3.2.2. Verification and post classification:
Supervised maximum likelihood classification resulted into "salt and peppery" classified land cover maps as
a result of pixel by pixel classification taking into account spectral variability of pixels during the classification
procedure. Such salt and peppery classified land cover maps were generalized using 3x3 majority smoothing
filter. As direct field verification of classified land cover map of the year 1990 was not possible, they were
verified using the samples generated from digital layers of topographic maps acquired from DoS, Nepal (such
samples were checked visually with available aerial photographs before using them for verification). In case
of the classified land cover map for year 2010, direct field verification was carried out. Thus, the majority
of samples were collected from the field while some were also generated from the high resolution GeoEye
satellite data available on Google Earth. Field verification was focused on those areas where classification
of land cover was dubious. Field verification results showed that the classification results were satisfactory
(overall accuracy 89.96 % and 89.37 % for 1990 and 2010 respectively: confusion matrices are given in
about the field situations available in NSCFP, a supervised maximum likelihood classification was used.
Imageries were classified emphasizing six main categories of land cover i.e. Forest; Grassland, Agriculture,
Barren land, Sand and Water bodies. Forest areas were further classified into Dense forest (with >40 %
crown cover) and Sparse forest (with 10 40 % crown cover) (see also Table 3). For this, several training
samples were selected for each land cover category. The training samples for the year 1990 were generatedfrom digital layers of topographic maps acquired from DoS, Nepal and such samples were also checked
visually with available aerial photographs. While the training samples for the year 2010 were mainly
collected from the field and some were generated from the high resolution GeoEye satellite data available
on Google Earth.
In case of 1990 imagery, clouded and snow covered areas were initially classified into separate classes. Later
such cloud class was removed by merging it to the actual land cover classes by checking them with available
aerial photographs and topographic maps. Snow classes were reclassified as grassland (based on the field
experience: the snow covered high altitude areas are only covered by snow during the winter and usually
serve as pastures during the summer). Shadow class in both year imageries were removed by first classifying
shadow as a separate class and later merging such shadow class to the actual land cover classes by checking
it with available aerial photographs, topographic maps and GeoEye satellite data available in Google Earth.
6 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
13/50
Projection: Transverse Mercator Scale Factor: 0.9996
False Easting: 500000 Latitude of Origin: 0
False Northing: 0 Linear Unit: Meter
Central Meridian: 87 Datum: D WGS 1984
3.3. Limitations of the study
Forest Act 1993 and Forest Regulations 1995 are the two main legal documents for managing Nepal's forest
resources. As per the Forest Act 1993, there are two main categories of forest in Nepal based on land ownership
i.e. National forest and Private forest. Further based on the use right and the management regimes, National
forest is sub-divided into five categories namely, Government-managed forest; Protected forest, Community
forest, Leasehold forest and Religious forest. The study originally aimed to survey the boundaries of all these
different categories of forest separately to make management regime-wise comparison of forest cover change.
As per the target, all community forests except for two (one each in Hawa and Thulopatal VDCs) were
surveyed, and forest boundary maps were prepared. The boundary of those two community forests could not
be surveyed because of some practical difficulties in the field. In addition to the community forests, other
identifiable forests, notably: government-managed forests (33), religious forests (2), leasehold forests (13) and
private forests (76) were also surveyed and forest boundary maps were prepared. However, all existing
government-managed forest, leasehold forest, religious forest and private forest could not be surveyed becausein most of the cases the boundaries of such forests could not be properly identified in the field. Thus, instead
of treating other identifiable forests that were surveyed during the study separately, they were grouped as
other forests and management regime-wise comparison of forest cover change pattern was limited to community
forests against all other forests. Further, Laduk VDC, where there were forest of all three management regimes
i.e. community forests, government forests (i.e. national forests other than community forests) and private
forests in adequate number was taken as a sub-sample to make management regime-wise comparison of forest
cover change patterns in community forests, government forests and private forests.
Annex 8 and 9). DFO, Dolakha and key informants from the studied VDCs were consulted further to verify
the classification results and the discrepancies found from such consultations were corrected in the final maps
before incorporating them in GIS application for further analysis.
3.2.3. Forest boundary mappingThe geographic information (i.e. latitude and longitude information) of forest boundary points collected from
GPS survey were first processed in MapSource application (Garmin International, Inc., Kansas) before exporting
them to Google Earth. Google Earth with high resolution GeoEye satellite data served as a good platform for
visually verifying the geographic information collected during the GPS survey and for creating forest boundary
layers. Forest boundary layers were then exported to ArcGIS 9.3 application (ESRI, California) where they
were developed into forest boundary polygons. Boundary mapping has a displacement resolution of 10-100m.
3.2.4. Map analysis and statistical data management
Classified land cover maps and forest boundary maps were incorporated in ArcGIS 9.3 application for further
analysis. All the required data calculations and forest cover change analysis were carried out in ArcGIS 9.3
application.
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 7
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
14/50
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
15/50
A. Bhimeshwor cluster
4.1. Land cover status of the study area
Landsat imageries of the year 1990 and 2010 were classified using ENVI 4.2 application to produce land cover
maps with seven land cover classes namely, Agriculture, Barren land, Dense forest, Grassland, Sparse forest, Sand
and Water bodies (Fig. 5). Among all three clusters considered for the study, Singati cluster has the highest forest
cover (77.43 %) followed by Thulopatal cluster (64.55 %) and Bhimeshwor cluster (61.60 %) in 2010. The overall
forest cover in the study area is 67.86 % which is way more than the national average of 39.6 % (FAO, 2009).
1990
2010
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 9
4. Results
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
16/50
B. Singati cluster
1990
2010
10 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
17/50
C. Thulopatal cluster
Figure 5: Land cover maps of the study area:
A. Bhimeshwor cluster; B. Singati cluster and C. Thulopatal cluster.
1990
2010
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 11
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
18/50
The comparison of land cover maps of 1990 and 2010 showed the considerable change in Agriculture, Dense forest,
Grass land and Sparse forest in all three studied clusters between 1990 and 2010 (Table 4). However, there is only
negligible change in Barren land, Sand and Water bodies. Dense forest has increased substantially while Sparse
forest has decreased in all three clusters. Between 1990 and 2010, Dense forest has increased by 3,491.53 ha in
Bhimeshwor cluster, 2,634.77 ha in Singati cluster and 434.63 ha in Thulopatal cluster while Sparse forest hasdecreased by 2,052.87 ha in Bhimeshwor cluster, 1,815.38 ha in Singati cluster and 519.75 ha in Thulopatal cluster
(Table 4). Agriculture has increased in all three clusters. Between 1990 and 2010, Agriculture has increased by
495.33 ha in Bhimeshwor cluster, 31.17 ha in Singati cluster and 309.22 ha in Thulopatal cluster (Table 4). Unlike
Agriculture land, Grassland has decreased in all three clusters. Grassland has decreased by 1,875.65 ha in Bhimeshwor
cluster, 843.00 ha in Singati cluster and 224.14 ha in Thulopatal cluster (Table 4).
Table 4 : Land cover status by cluster (1990 and 2010)
Land cover class Area (ha) Net Land cover change (ha)
1990 2010
Agriculture 4723.05 5218.38 495.33
Barren land 91.65 39.35 -52.30
Dense forest 2151.26 5642.80 3491.53
Grassland 2286.52 410.87 -1875.65
Sparse forest 5525.22 3472.35 -2052.87
Sand 1.70 0.16 -1.54
Water bodies 19.09 14.60 -4.50
Agriculture 1894.11 1925.28 31.17
Barren land 8.58 6.13 -2.46
Dense forest 2690.26 5325.03 2634.77
Grassland 852.46 9.45 -843.00
Sparse forest 3266.99 1451.61 -1815.38
Sand 0.92 1.16 0.24
Water bodies 38.57 33.23 -5.34
Agriculture 932.29 1241.52 309.23
Barren land 0.18 0.36 0.18
Dense forest 643.81 1078.44 434.63
Grassland 524.92 300.78 -224.14
Sparse forest 2250.29 1730.54 -519.75
Sand 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water bodies 0.15 0.00 -0.15
Bhimeshworcluster
Singaticlu
ster
Thulo
patalcluster
12 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-ve sign represents trend of change
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
19/50
In Bhimeshwor cluster, between 1990 and 2010, sparse
forest decreased from 37 % to 24 % and dense forest
increased from 15 % to 38 %. Similarly, agriculture increased
from 32 % to 35 % and grassland decreased from 15 % to
3 %. However, changes in other classes were negligible
(Fig. 6).
Figure 6: Land cover status of Bhimeshwor cluster.
Inner circle represents the land cover status of 1990 and
outer circle represents that of 2010.
In Singati cluster, between 1990 and 2010, sparse forest
decreased from 37 % to 17 % while dense forest increased
from 31 % to 61 %. Similarly, grassland decreased from 10
% to less than 1 %. However, changes in agriculture and
other classes were negligible (Fig. 7).
In Thulopatal cluster, between 1990 and 2010, sparse
forest decreased from 52 % to 40 % while dense forest
increased from 15 % to 25%. Unlike agriculture that
increased from 21 % to 28 %, grassland decreased from
12 % to 7 %. However, changes in other classes were
negligible (Fig. 8).
Figure 7: Land cover status of Singati cluster.
Inner circle represents the land cover status of 1990
and outer circle represents that of 2010.
Figure 8: Land cover status of Thulopatal cluster.
Inner circle represents the land cover status of
1990 and outer circle represents that of 2010.
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 13
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
20/50
4.2. Forest cover change 1990 - 2010
In order to analyze the forest cover change, the land cover maps of 1990 and 2010 were first reclassified into Dense
forest (D), Sparse forest (S) and Non-forest areas (N). Non-forest areas include all land cover classes except Dense
forest and Sparse forest i.e., Agriculture, Barren land, Grassland, Sand and Water Bodies. Such reclassified land
cover maps of 1990 and 2010 were overlaid as shown in the forest cover change matrix below to detect the forest
cover change in ArcGIS 9.3 application.
where, D stands for Dense forest,
S for Sparse forest,N for Non-forest,
DD for Dense forest in 1990 that remained unchanged in 2010,
DS for Dense forest in 1990 that got degraded to Sparse forest in 2010,
DN for Dense forest in 1990 that got deforested to Non-forest in 2010,
SD fo Sparse forest in 1990 that got upgraded to Dense forest in 2010,
SS for Sparse forest in 1990 that remained unchanged in 2010,
SN for Sparse forest in 1990 that got deforested to Non-forest in 2010,
ND for Non-forest in 1990 that got forested to Dense forest in 2010,
NS for Non-forest in 1990 that got forested to Sparse forest in 2010 and
NN for Non-forest in 1990 that remained unchanged in 2010.
The nine forest cover change pattern obtained from the overlay analysis were reclassified into six forest cover
change classes following the classification scheme shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Forest cover change classification scheme
SN Forest cover change class Definition
1 Improved forest Sparse forest upgraded to Dense forest SD
2 New forest area Non-forest forested to Sparse or Dense forest ND, NS
3 Unchanged forest Dense or Sparse forest that remained unchanged DD, SS
4 Degraded forest Dense forest degraded to Sparse forest DS5 Deforested area Dense or Sparse forest deforested to Non-forest DN, SN
6 Unchanged non-forest Non-forest that remained unchanged NN
14 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
Forest coverchange pattern
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
21/50
4.3. Overall forest cover change 1990 - 2010
The overlay analysis showed that forest density has improved in all three clusters between 1990 and 2010 and that
in Bhimeshwor and Singati clusters, the forest area has also increased considerably. However, in Thulopatal cluster,
there has been a small decrease in total forest area between 1990 and 2010 (Fig. 9 - 11 and Table 6).
Figure 9: Forest cover change in Bhimeshwor cluster (1990 - 2010).
Black circle marks Khorthali Community Forestry (the same forest shown in Fig. 1),
Charikot, one the oldest CFUGs in Dolakha. The area was mostly covered with sparse
forest in 1990 which now have grown into a dense pine forest, a good example of forest
improvement.
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 15
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
22/50
Figure 10: Forest cover change in Singati cluster (1990 - 2010).
Figure 11: Forest cover change in Thulopatal cluster (1990 - 2010).
16 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
23/50
In Bhimeshwor cluster, 3,012.93 ha (i.e. 55 % of sparse forest in 1990) has shown a marked improvement in density
and 2,110.23 ha (i.e. 30 % of non-forest in 1990) has become forested. Similarly, in Singati cluster, 2,216.97 ha
(i.e. 68 % of sparse forest in 1990) has shown a marked improvement in density and 1,097.82 ha (i.e. 39 % of non-
forest in 1990) has become forested. In Thulopatal cluster, 509.31 ha (i.e. 23 % of sparse forest in 1990) has shown
a marked improvement in density and 323.28 ha (i.e. 22 % of non-forest in 1990) has become forested. Unlike inBhimeshwor and Singati clusters, in Thulopatal cluster, when the absolute changes in the forest area were compared,
the amount by which the forest area has increased (323.28 ha) could not quite keep up with the amount by which
the forest area has decreased (406.80 ha) - although the amount by which sparse forest has changed into dense
forest (509.31 ha) was higher than the amount by which dense forest has changed into sparse forest (88.56 ha).
Thus, despite some small annual forest loss, the proportion of dense forest is increasing in Thulopatal cluster. The
overall slight reduction in forest area and relatively higher rate of deforestation (i.e. forest is disappearing at the rate
of 0.70 % per year) and forest degradation (i.e. dense forest is changing into sparse forest at the rate of 0.69 %
per year) found in Thulopatal cluster are probably due to the increasing practice of felling Alnus nepalensis
trees on the private land to fulfill the increasing demand of veneer enterprises established in Dolakha and its
neighboring districts.
Table 6: Forest cover change by cluster (1990 - 2010).
Land cover class 1990 Forest cover change (ha)
Land cover Area (ha) Improved forest New forest area Degraded forest Deforested area
Sparse forest 5525.22 3012.93
Non-forest 7122.01 2110.23
Dense forest 2151.26 -161.82
Forest 7676.48 -671.04
Change (%) 54.53 29.63 -7.52 -8.74
Rate of change
(% per year) 2.73 1.48 -0.38 -0.44
Sparse forest 3266.99 2216.97
Non-forest 2794.63 1097.82
Dense forest 2690.26 -14.31
Forest 5957.25 -264.06
Change (%) 67.86 39.28 -0.53 -4.43
Rate of change
(% per year) 3.39 1.96 -0.03 -0.22
Sparse forest 2250.29 509.31
Non-forest 1457.54 323.28Dense forest 643.81 -88.56
Forest 2894.10 -406.80
Change (%) 22.63 22.18 -13.76 -14.06
Rate of change
(% per year) 1.13 1.11 -0.69 -0.70
Bhimeshworcluster
Singaticluster
Thulopatalcluste
r
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 17
-ve sign represents trend of change
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
24/50
4.4. Forest cover change in community forests and other forests
The study also compared the patterns of forest cover change in community forests and other forests. For this, a total,
11,117.47 ha of community forests, excluding two community forests that were not surveyed, were grouped under
community forests and 3,115.99 ha of other identifiable forests that were surveyed during the study were grouped
under other forests. The comparison showed that conditions of both the community forests and the other forests
have considerably improved over past two decades i.e. 1990 and 2010 in all three studied clusters (Fig.12 and
Table 7).
Forest cover change in community forest (Bhimeshwor cluster)
Forest cover change in other forest (Bhimeshwor cluster)
18 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
25/50
Forest cover change in community forest (Singati cluster)
Forest cover change in other forest (Singati cluster)
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 19
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
26/50
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
27/50
Other forest
Sparse forest 841.31 754.26
Non-forest 332.05 312.93
Dense forest 954.25 -1.78
Forest 1795.56 -16.17
Change (%) 89.65 94.24 -0.19 -0.90
Rate of change
(% per year) 4.48 4.71 -0.01 -0.05
The higher rates of forestation (i.e. the rate of change of non-forest areas into forests) and forest improvement (i.e. the rate
of change of sparse forests into dense forests) found in all three clusters indicate that the improvement in forest cover has
been achieved both in terms of forest area and forest density in both categories of forests (Fig. 12 and Table 7). This
improvement can be attributed to the increased awareness among local people regarding forest issues, and in particular
to the effective management and monitoring of the community forests and their neighboring other forests by the user
groups. The rates of forestation within the community forests have been found substantially higher than that in the other
forests in all three clusters (Table 7). In addition to that, the rates of deforestation in community forests have been found
slightly lower than that in other forests in all three clusters (Table 7). The implication is that CFUGs are more successful
in managing and monitoring their forests and preventing encroachment than other management regimes.
Land cover class 1990 Forest cover change (ha)
Land cover Area (ha) Improved forest New forest area Degraded forest Deforested area
Community forest
Sparse forest 3675.72 2517.33
Non-forest 1253.51 1148.53Dense forest 2030.98 -152.89
Forest 5706.70 -54.55
Change (%) 68.49 91.63 -7.53 -0.96
Rate of change
(% per year) 3.42 4.58 -0.38 -0.05
Other forest
Sparse forest 399.10 174.44
Non-forest 126.48 70.03
Dense forest 50.49 -2.11
Forest 449.59 -34.33
Change (%) 43.71 55.37 -4.18 -7.64Rate of change
(% per year) 2.19 2.77 -0.21 -0.38
Community forest
Sparse forest 1419.90 1028.63
Non-forest 397.22 387.37
Dense forest 1547.93 -7.71
Forest 2967.83 -7.22
Change (%) 72.44 97.52 -0.50 -0.24
Rate of change
(% per year) 3.62 4.88 -0.02 -0.01
Bhimeshworcluster
Singaticluster
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 21
Table 7: Forest cover change in community forests and other forests by cluster (1990 - 2010).
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
28/50
Land cover class 1990 Forest cover change (ha)
Land cover Area (ha) Improved forest New forest area Degraded forest Deforested area
Community forest
Sparse forest 400.92 187.26
Non-forest 33.41 32.01
Dense forest 360.67 -19.07
Forest 761.60 -4.44
Change (%) 46.71 95.79 -5.29 -0.58
Rate of change
(% per year) 2.34 4.79 -0.26 -0.03
Other forest
Sparse forest 281.21 129.07
Non-forest 54.70 34.35
Dense forest 78.38 -4.90
Forest 359.58 -16.26Change (%) 45.90 62.79 -6.26 -4.52
Rate of change
(% per year) 2.29 3.14 -0.31 -0.23
Thulopatalcluster
4.5. Forest cover change in community forests, government forests and private forests of
Laduk VDC
4.5.1. Land cover status of Laduk VDC by management regime
For effective comparison of the patterns of forest cover change among different management regimes, Laduk
VDC, where adequate number of community forests (6 community forests with cumulative area of 1,221 ha),
Government forests (5 Government forests with cumulative area of 270.19 ha) and private forests (14 private
forests with cumulative area of 89.01 ha) were present, was taken as a sub-sample. Laduk VDC has an area
of 2,683.95 ha out which 62 % is under forest cover. The comparison of land cover maps of 1990 and 2010
showed the considerable change in Dense forest, Grassland and Sparse forest in overall Laduk VDC and also
in the forests under all three management regimes (Table 8). However, there is only negligible change in
Barren land, Sand and Water bodies. Unlike other land cover classes, Agriculture has decreased considerably
in private forests indicating the conversion of private agriculture lands into forests. Dense forest has increased
substantially while Sparse forest has decreased in overall Laduk VDC and also in the forests under all three
management regimes.
22 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-ve sign represents trend of change
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
29/50
Table 8: Land cover status of Laduk VDC by management regime (1990 - 2010).
Land cover Area (ha) Net Land cover change (ha)
1990 2010
Overall
Agriculture 720.74 728.38 7.64
Barren land 4.31 6.01 1.70
Dense forest 427.34 1227.78 800.44
Grassland 287.12 0.30 -286.82
Sparse forest 1234.04 716.03 -518.01
Sand 0.09 0.00 -0.09
Water bodies 10.31 5.46 -4.85
Community forest
Agriculture 0.00 0.00 0.00
Barren land 0.09 1.76 1.67
Dense forest 329.49 854.92 525.43
Grassland 185.40 0.00 -185.40
Sparse forest 705.08 363.84 -341.25
Sand 0.09 0.00 -0.09
Water bodies 0.85 0.48 -0.37
National forest
Agriculture 19.68 18.61 -1.07
Barren land 0.25 0.00 -0.25
Dense forest 74.37 202.48 128.11
Grassland 20.57 0.00 -20.57
Sparse forest 152.88 49.04 -103.84
Sand 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water bodies 2.44 0.06 -2.38
Private forest
Agriculture 23.75 6.14 -17.61
Barren land 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dense forest 8.51 50.40 41.89
Grassland 6.44 0.00 -6.44
Sparse forest 50.31 32.48 -17.84
Sand 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water bodies 0.00 0.00 0.00
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 23
-ve sign represents trend of change
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
30/50
4.5.2. Forest cover change in Laduk VDC by management regime
The overlay analysis showed that forest area
as well as forest density have improved in
overall Laduk VDC as well as in the forests
under all three management regimes between1990 and 2010 (Fig. 13 and Table 9).
The rates of forestation and forest improvement
have been found to be considerably higher
than that of forest degradation and deforestation
in overall Laduk VDC and in the forests under
all three management regimes (Table 9).
Moreover, the rate of forestation within the
community forests has been found substantially
higher than that in the forests under other
management regimes and the rate ofdeforestation in the community forests has been
found slightly lower than that in the forests
under other management regimes (Table 9).
This further suggests that CFUGs are more
successful in managing and monitoring their
forests and preventing encroachment than other
management regimes.
Land cover class 1990 Forest cover change (ha)
Land cover Area (ha) Improved forest New forest area Degraded forest Deforested area
Overall
Sparse forest 1234.04 733.42
Non-forest 1022.58 391.00
Dense forest 427.34 -4.83
Forest 1661.38 -107.26
Change (%) 59.43 38.24 -1.13 -6.46
Rate of change
(% per year) 2.97 1.91 -0.06 -0.32
Figure 13: Forest cover change in Laduk VDC (1990 - 2010).
Table 9. Forest cover change in Laduk VDC by management regime (1990 - 2010).
24 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
31/50
Land cover class 1990 Forest cover change (ha)
Land cover Area (ha) Improved forest New forest area Degraded forest Deforested area
Community forest
Sparse forest 705.08 497.16
Non-forest 186.43 180.79Dense forest 329.49 -3.69
Forest 1034.57 -2.13
Change (%) 70.51 96.98 -1.12 -0.21
Rate of change
(% per year) 3.53 4.85 -0.06 -0.01
National forest
Sparse forest 152.88 117.38
Non-forest 42.94 32.85
Dense forest 74.37 -0.17
Forest 227.25 -10.13
Change (%) 76.78 76.50 -0.23 -4.46Rate of change
(% per year) 3.84 3.83 -0.01 -0.22
Private forest
Sparse forest 50.31 33.68
Non-forest 30.19 26.30
Dense forest 8.51 -0.06
Forest 58.82 -0.90
Change (%) 66.94 87.11 -0.75 -1.52
Rate of change
(% per year) 3.35 4.36 -0.04 -0.08
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 25
-ve sign represents trend of change
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
32/50
The study results showed that forest cover has changed considerably in the study area between 1990 and 2010.In all three studied clusters, forest density has increased and in Bhimeshwor and Singati clusters forest area has also
increased considerably. However, in Thulopatal cluster, there has been a slight reduction in forest area. Based on
the personal field experience of the study team, interviews with the local stakeholders and document reviews, the
following factors have been identified as the main drivers of forest cover change in the study area.
5.1. Forest improvement
5.1.1. Community based forest management
The results of this study clearly demonstrate the positive effect that community forestry has had on overall
forest area as well as forest density in the three clusters of Dolakha district that were investigated. Under
community forest program, user groups take responsibility for managing and monitoring forest areas accordingto a management plan, which includes measures for fuelwood, timber and fodder extraction on an equitable
basis. This is aided by the natural conditions which support ready natural regeneration. An important point
in this respect is the control of livestock grazing in community forests and promotion of stall feeding, which
has had a remarkably positive impact on vegetative cover.
5.1.2. Less dependency/efficient use of forest resources
The social context has changed dramatically over past two decades in Dolakha district. Urban residents did
not have access to biogas; improved cooking stoves, liquefied petroleum gas in 1990s and they had to rely
almost entirely on fuelwood for cooking. The current easy access to biogas, improved cooking stoves and
liquefied petroleum gas for many people - certainly those with road access and some monetary income - has
considerably reduced dependency on forests for fuelwood. The establishment of saw-mills has also increased
the efficiency of timber processing, meaning that where such facilities are available timber use in house
construction has become less wasteful. In the past, it was typical to harvest mainly pole-sized trees instead
of large mature trees and to use the whole tree as a pillar or beam in construction. Thus, it was common to
fell several trees to build a single house in the past. However, with improved roads and transportation facilities,
saw-milling has become accessible even to many of those people living in remote parts of the study area,
meaning that only large mature trees are harvested as per community forest operational plans, with one tree
sometimes providing sufficient timber for several houses.
5.1.3. Decline in slash and burn practice
Slash and burn was practiced in Dolakha district in the past, but was already on the decline twenty years ago
due to limited suitable land and better alternative opportunities, including out-migration. Such opportunities
have greatly increased, and family members are moving far and wide in search of better livelihood options.
Furthermore, for those staying behind, better access to fertilizer and improved seeds means that intensive
farming is far more attractive than slash and burn. In this regard, Gyan Lal Subedi, a resident of Serabesi, said,
"in the past my family and I used to cultivate the wasteland adjacent to our farmland and it was still difficult
for us to produce enough food for our family. However, at present, we are just cultivating our farmland and
we are producing enough food for our family. Once we stopped cultivating the wasteland, trees started
regenerating in the area and currently we have a small patch of Uttis (Alnus nepalensis) forest in our wasteland,
which we can sell anytime to make good money".
26 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
5. Drivers of forest cover change
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
33/50
5.1.4. Decline in forest fire incidences
Forest fire can have considerable influence on forest cover, especially during the dry season. Occasionally,
forest fires can cause severe damage to the regeneration and the existing vegetation. According to local people,
the dense coniferous forest with plenty of mature trees along the upper part of Suspa Chhyamawati VDC was
completely burnt in 1991 (Fig. 14). Some of the burnt trees can still be seen in the area. Following the forestfire, the area remained bare without regeneration for several years. But later, the burnt area was seeded and
protected against grazing in the initiation of local user groups. Consequently, the area is slowly regenerating.
Above that coming to the recent times, the number of forest fire incidences has also decreased noticeably
in Dolakha district -with some occasional small forest fires put out successfully in joint effort of the local
CFUGs.
Black oval marks the dense forest area that was completely burnt in 1991. The area is slowly
regenerating following seeding and protection against grazing.
Figure 14: Forest cover change in Suspa Chhyamawati VDC (1990 - 2010).
5.1.5. Reclamation of landslide areas and river banks
In the past, when substantial areas in the studied clusters had only degraded forest cover, flash floods were
quite common. In some cases these triggered huge landslides. The improved forest cover in the area has
reduced flash floods incidences and associated landslides. In addition, soil conservation measures applied
to the landslide areas and river banks through the support of District Soil Conservation Office (DSCO) has
resulted in -most of the landslide areas and formerly degraded river banks being reclaimed. As can be seen
from the images of Bhimeshwor cluster (Fig. 15), streams that were quite distinct in the 1990 image can hardly
be identified in the 2010 image as most of them have been covered with trees on both the banks of the stream
(Fig. 16). The landslide areas also have disappeared among the flourishing trees (Fig 15).
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 27
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
34/50
Figure 15: Reclamation of landslide areas and river banks along Charnawati River, Bhimeshwor Cluster
between 1990 and 2010.
Black circles & ovals mark the landslide areas along Charnawati river that have disappeared among the flourishing trees
in 2010 Landsat TM imagery.
Figure 16: Trees along the river banks, Charnawati River, Bhimeshwor cluster (2011).
1990
2010
28 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
35/50
5.2. Forest gain / Increase in forest area
5.2.1. Plantation
Plantation was a prime activity of the Integrated Hill Development Project (IHDP). By the end of the project
(i.e. by the end of fiscal year 1989/90), over 3,900 ha of government land in Dolakha district had been planted(including over 50 ha of government land planted under the (JMDP) Jiri Multipurpose Development Project).
In addition, NSCFP also provided financial support to the DFO in its initial phases for plantation. During those
years, mainly Pinus spp. was planted in the district, and as a result abundant pine forest can be seen in the
district at present, particularly Pinus caribaea (an exotic pine species) in the vicinity of roads. Both during
and following the plantation, there have been arguments for and against the plantation ofPinus spp. Local
people quite often complained that pine plantations have caused acidification; reduction of the regeneration
of fodder species and also had a negative impact on the water table of the areas, resulting drying up of water
springs. However, others are happy that pine plantations have considerably increased the greenery of their
surroundings and have stabilized the slopes, which otherwise would have slipped or washed away. Sita Ram
Basnet, Ex-chairperson of FECOFUN and a resident of Bhimeshwor Municipality, highlighting the importance
of pine plantation said,
"those who don't have shoes to put on will first look for slippers, and then only for good and comfortable
shoes. In order to cover the bare slopes, some vegetation was needed, pine fulfilled that need, and now there
is greenery everywhere. So, now is the time to think whether to keep pine forest as it is or to go for conversion
and it is always possible to convert currently existing pine forests into mixed species broadleaf forests with
some management interventions".
It was in the beginning of implementation of community forestry program in Dolakha district that plantation
of government land was the prime forestry intervention of the Nepal government and the projects. As implied
in the quote above, CFUGs can now choose how to manage the mature plantations, and slowly convert them
to other species compositions, if required.
5.2.2. Conserving trees in private
land and terrace raisers of
farmland
Partly as a result of public
awareness campaigns on
agroforestry, but simply out of
recognized need, people started
planting and conserving trees
(mainly fodder trees) on their
private lands. Those who owned
wasteland (gullies and otheruncultivated spaces) used such
areas to plant and conserve trees,
whilst others turned to tree
plantation and conservation on
the terrace raisers of their
farmland. Consequently, trees
ou t s ide the fo re s t haveFigure 17: Trees in the terrace raisers of farmland, Ramkot, Bhimeshwor
Municipality (2011).
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 29
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
36/50
considerably increased in the study area. In some places, the trees along the terrace raisers of the farmland
have grown so big and thick that the farmland can easily be mistaken for forest (Fig. 17). Highlighting this
situation, Gokul Prasad Neupane, Treasurer, Simpani CFUG, Bhimeshwor Municipality, said,
"it used to be very difficult in the past, when there were no fodder trees in our farmland because we had to
spend lots of energy and time to collect fodder needed for the livestock and at present, when there are enough
fodder trees in our farmland, it is still very difficult because the trees in farmland have grown so big and thick
that they are casting shade to the agricultural crops growing underneath and are adversely affecting the crop
production".
5.2.3. Land abandonment
The study area faced massive outward migration (people moving to cities and abroad in search of secure and
better life) during and following the decade long (1996 - 2006) political conflict. With this increased trend
of outward migration, there was a certain amount of land abandonment in the study area. This concerns only
the marginal lands, as the population was also increasing, most of the productive land remained under
cultivation. Abandoned land that remained uncultivated for some years has been reclaimed by naturalregeneration and is slowly changing into forest (Fig. 18).
Figure 18: Reclamation of abandoned land, Makaibari, Bhimeshwor Municipality (2011).
5.3. Forest degradation
5.3.1. Illegal extraction of timber and fuelwood
Illegal extraction of timber and fuelwood has always been one of the major causes of forest degradation in
the hills of Nepal, where people rely on forests for construction materials and for energy for cooking. In the
past, local people used to extract timber and fuelwood from forest to fulfill their subsistence needs, but coming
30 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
37/50
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
38/50
5.4. Forest loss / Decrease in forest area
5.4.1. Forest encroachment
Encroachment of the forest land still occurs in some parts of the study area although it is taking place at much
slower pace than in earlier times. Increase in public awareness through the implementation of communityforestry program in the district and regular monitoring of forest areas by the user groups under community
forestry program have been successful in curbing the rate of encroachment if not controlling it totally in the
study area. With effective management and monitoring of the community forests, the encroachment pressure
has shifted to the remaining national forests. The local people of Serabesi, Boch VDC said,
"a patch of national forest along Ghattekhola River was claimed by an elite in the village some time ago but
now with the combined effort of all the villagers they are planning to get the forest handed over as a
community forest and bring it under community management so that nobody else can claim the forest in
future".
However, in recent times, the practice of providing part of community forest areas for schools and hospitals
is increasing in the name of local development. So far such things are happening in limited scale in certainareas but if it continues, in long run, this may have serious impact on forest cover leading to loss of forest
areas.
5.4.2. Felling trees on private land
There are currently five veneer enterprises in function in Dolakha district. With their establishment, the
demand for timber (especiallyAlnus nepalensis) has skyrocketed. People started getting a good price for
timber that used to be burned as domestic fuelwood in the past. Consequently, they started felling trees on
their private land in a desire to make quick money. Dabal Tamang, one of the owners of Gauri Shankar Wood
Production and Sawmill Pvt. Ltd., Bhimeshwor Municipality said,
"ninety percent of our timber demand at present is met by the timber supplied from the private land and only
10 % comes from the community forests. The complicated administrative process that is involved in extracting
timber from the community forests is discouraging the extraction of timber from them".
Although there are no official figures to support the local claims of high levels of tree felling on private land
in Thulopatal cluster, the current study results showing a slight reduction in forest area support the observation.
However, given thatAlnus nepalensis is fast growing that regenerates naturally, this harvesting should not
be labeled as deforestation -though some control mechanism should surely be developed to check irregularities
involved in such harvesting.
32 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
39/50
The current study - that focused on the three clusters of Dolakha district - showed that the forest density has improvedin all three studied clusters and that the forest area has also increased in Bhimeshwor and Singati cluster between
1990 and 2010.
Furthermore, the study also compared the patterns of forest cover change among different management regimes
such as community forests, government forests and private forests, and showed that Community Forest User Groups
are more successful in managing and monitoring the forests and preventing encroachment than other management
regimes with relatively higher rates of forestation and lower rates of deforestation in the community forests.
The study also identified that community based forest management; less dependency/efficient use of forest resources;
decline in slash and burn practice; decline in forest fire incidences; reclamation of landslide areas and river banks;
plantation; conserving trees in private land and terrace raisers of farmland; land abandonment; illegal extraction
of timber and fuelwood; road construction; forest encroachment; and felling of trees on private land are the major
drivers of forest cover change in the study area.
The current study - though has been limited in its scope from its geographic coverage point of view - has provided
a good indication of positive impact of community forestry on the forest cover in the studied clusters. It is, thus,
recommended to carry out similar analysis in other parts of the project districts and Nepal as a whole to assess
general impact of community forestry on the forest cover of Nepal.
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 33
6. Conclusion
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
40/50
FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 - Nepal Country Report. 2009.
Hobley, Mary, Jagadish Baral, Narendra Rasaily, and Bihari Shreshtha. Nepal Swiss Community Forest Project - External
Review. 2007.
Pokharel, Bharat Kumar, and Anupama Mahat. Kathmandu to Jiri: A Photo Journey. Nepal Swiss Community Forestry
Project, SDC, Intercooperation, 2009.
34 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
7. Bibliography
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
41/50
Annex
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 35
Annex 1. Landsat TM imagery 1990 used for the study.
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
42/50
Annex 2. Landsat TM imagery 2010 used for the study.
36 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
43/50
Annex 3. List of the participants of GPS aided forest boundary survey professional training. These participants
were mobilized in teams of 2 persons each for forest boundary survey.
SN Name Address
1 Roshan K. Shrestha Bhimeshwor Municipality - 1
2 Shambhu Ram Thami Bhimeshwor Municipality - 3
3 Prabin Bhujel Bhimeshwor Municipality - 6
4 Nani Maya Neupane Bhimeshwor Municipality - 10
5 Gyan B. Tamang Boch - 2
6 Ramesh Karki Hawa - 1
7 Mingmar Sherpa Hawa - 1
8 Sushila Shrestha Laduk - 7
9 Samundra Oli Laduk - 8
10 Prem Narayan Joshi Lakuridada - 5
11 Jaganath Khatri Lamidada - 7
12 Lokendra Karki Lamidada - 8
13 Bina Lama Magapauwa - 3
14 Renuka Khadka Suri - 3
15 Hem Kumar Thapa Suri - 5
16 Suresh Khadka Suri - 5
17 Apsara Khadka Suri - 5
18 Mekh B. Khati Sushpa Chhemawati - 6
19 Mohan Raj Siwakoti Sushpa Chhemawati - 9
20 Krishna Khatri Thulopatal - 3
21 Temba Sherpa Thulopatal - 4
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 37
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
44/50
Annex 4. In total there are 111 community forests in the study area. Out of 111 community forests, 68 were
surveyed during the study; for 41 community forests in Charnawati watershed, forest boundary maps were
obtained from ICIMOD; and two community forests, one each in Hawa and Thulopatal namely Khalte CF and
Rambole CF respectively could not be surveyed because of some practical difficulties in the field.
SN Name Area (ha)
Bhimeshwor Municipality
1 Amlekharka CF 6.5978
2 Archale CF 32.8845
3 Banarasi Kadel CF 12.5528
4 Bandevi CF 8.0173
5 Barkhe Dandapari CF 35.3976
6 Bhasmepakha CF 10.934
7 Bhirmuni Devithan CF 5.98288 Bichaur CF 47.714
9 Budha Bhimsen CF 86.9145
10 Charnawati CF 831.55
11 Chatali CF 12.6542
12 Chuche Dhungha CF 8.8984
13 Chyakthali CF 2.9751
14 Chyarchyare CF 9.6663
15 Chyase Bhagabati CF 30.3215
16 Darfu CF 4.4527
17 Devithan CF 43.9406
18 Dhande CF 29.1734
19 Gahate Baghkhor CF 5.544
20 Gaide CF 13.3998
21 Jilu CF 28.0555
22 Kamalamai CF 70.8274
23 Karandi CF 5.6103
24 Khahare CF 16.7311
25 Khorthali CF 174.6341
26 Kupri Salleri CF 42.0316
27 Lamachaur CF 6.7993
28 Mahankal CF 39.3787
29 Majhkharka Lisepani CF 174.1772
30 Mathani CF 28.2834
31 Nagdhunga CF 42.4823
32 Saharpa CF 21.793
33 Setidevi CF 44.3628
34 Shivajang Bhumesthan CF 46.6727
35 Simle CF 61.4077
36 Simpani CF 64.3953
37 Simpani Khahare CF 84.5842
38 Simsungure CF 32.762739 Sitakunda CF 206.3917
40 Siyoudada CF 31.4505
41 Sundari Mai CF 12.976
42 Tahaleshwori CF 53.0421
43 Thangsa Deurali CF 126.1328
44 Tikhatal CF 40.753
45 Tilinchok Rani CF 13.767
Boch VDC
46 Bhitteri CF 572.6294
47 Botle Setidevi CF 201.3324
48 Chittakunda CF 23.6702
49 Dhande Singhadevi CF 300.454
Hawa VDC
50 Jhyamte Dovan CF 133.7023
51 Dumsi Jhyang CF 155.5435
52 Thulogaira Odare CF 118.0624
53 Kalleri CF 31.1018
54 Khalte CF NA
SN Name Area (ha)
38 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
45/50
Laduk VDC
55 Chitra Devithan CF 119.658
56 Dambhote CF 92.2727
57 Fiste Dhunga CF 92.2745
58 Gidde Salleri CF 136.2276
59 Kamalamai CF 145.0095
60 Timbu CF 639.5616
Lakuri VDC
61 Dimal CF 38.1955
62 Eklepakha CF 181.4622
63 Napke Yanmara CF 175.346864 Paleko Ban CF 1.4848
65 Sankha Devi CF 277.2826
66 Seti Devi CF 407.3357
67 Thumka Danda CF 37.9715
68 Timure Tinsalle CF 44.2107
Lamidada VDC
69 Chiuri Kharka CF 28.6219
70 Choksa Lampokhari CF 104.0017
71 Choksha CF 1.3667
72 Kattike Beniswara CF 88.6977
73 Kattike CF 58.2684
74 Salle Bhandar Kharka CF 86.5264
75 Sirish Ghari CF 88.3341
76 Thalari Pakha CF 59.2005
77 Thalthale Salleri CF 27.052
Maga VDC
78 Bhakare CF 104.4282
79 Mahabhir CF 50.2606
80 Maithan Harisiddhi CF 28.3341
81 Palung Mahila CF 10.2754
82 Pauwa CF 58.6442
SN Name Area (ha)
83 Pokhari CF 23.6001
84 Ramite CF 13.597
85 Salleri CF 92.01
86 Tharlange CF 203.9683
Suri VDC
87 Bajre Danda CF 294.4381
88 Deurali CF 74.2544
89 Hapunang Tutepani CF 253.5605
90 Jogum CF 116.0761
91 Kabutar Yarpang CF 92.4488
92 Khurung CF 64.064893 Koshenidhi CF 624.8569
94 Kuku Dayale Cfa 9.1695
95 Kuku Dayale CFb 16.8761
96 Messel CF 10.9076
97 Okhreni CF 12.7424
98 Ramite Fungling CF 86.3351
Suspa Chyamawati VDC
99 Bosimba CF 33.5619
100 Damar Thami CF 245.0602
101 Gumpha Mahabhir CF 156.195
102 Jhareni Deurali CF 207.1444
103 Ramite Masandada CF 4.7541
104 Suspa CF 745.1352
105 Thalcha CF 6.7829
Thulopatal VDC
106 Hosinga CF 80.1681
107 Thalari CF 125.6599
108 Bhusune Sungure CF 94.0536
109 Surke Salme Cfa 30.3541
110 Surke Salme CFb 35.7653
111 Rambole CF NA
SN Name Area (ha)
Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010 39
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
46/50
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
47/50
Annex 6. Community forest boundary map of Singati cluster.
Forest
Cover
Change
Analysis
in
Dolakha
District1990-20
10
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
48/50
Annex 7. Community forest boundary map of Thulopatal cluster.
Forest
Cover
Change
Analysis
in
Dolakha
District1990-20
10
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
49/50
Annex 8. Confusion matrix of Landcover classification 1990.
Ground truth pixels
Landcover Barren Water Sand Agriculture Dense Sparse Grassland Total User
land bodies forest forest pixels accuracy(%)
Barren land 68 0 1 0 0 0 0 69 98.55
Water bodies 0 140 5 0 0 0 0 145 96.55
Sand 0 0 37 0 0 0 0 37 100.00
Agriculture 1 2 0 1179 0 30 216 1428 82.56
Dense forest 0 0 0 0 795 7 0 802 99.13
Sparse forest 0 0 0 54 44 929 1 1028 90.37
Grassland 0 0 0 43 0 0 472 515 91.65
Total pixels 69 142 43 1276 839 966 689 4024
Produceraccuracy (%) 98.55 98.59 86.05 92.40 94.76 96.17 68.51
Overall
accuracy (%) (68+140+37+1179+795+929+472)/4024 = 3620/4024 = 89.96
Ground truth pixels
Landcover Barren Water Sand Agriculture Sparse Grassland Dense Total Userland bodies forest forest pixels accuracy
(%)
Barren land 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 100.00
Water bodies 0 117 5 0 78 0 0 200 58.50
Sand 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 100.00
Agriculture 1 1 0 993 20 0 95 1110 89.46
Sparse forest 0 0 0 38 861 6 241 1146 75.13
Grassland 0 0 0 0 49 229 0 278 82.37
Dense forest 0 7 0 0 59 0 2821 2887 97.71
Total pixels 16 125 15 1031 1067 235 3157 5646Producer
accuracy (%) 93.75 93.60 66.67 96.31 80.69 97.45 89.36
Overall
accuracy (%) (15+117+10+993+861+229+2821)/5646 = (5046/5646) = 89.37
Annex 9. Confusion matrix of Landcover classification 2010.
46 Forest Cover Change Analysis in Dolakha District 1990-2010
-
8/6/2019 Forest Cover Change Analysis - Nepal -Low Quality
50/50