Focus Groups: A definition
“The Focus group is a special type of group in terms of purpose, size, composition, and procedures. A focus group is typically composed of 7-10 participants who are selected because they have certain characteristics in common that relate to the topic of the focus group…It is a carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, non threatening environment…”
(Krueger, p.6 ,1994)
Assumptions (1)
People do not form their ideas in isolation
Having a chance to discuss a certain issue in a group can help an individual shape and clarify their thinking about that issue
In a permissive non-judgmental and interactive group environment people are more likely to self disclose and share views and emotions that would not emerge otherwise
Assumptions (2)
Group interviewing has the unique capability of helping researchers capture the “dynamic” aspect of social interactions and probe for deeper understanding
When people interact with others on a topic they become aware of their own implicit assumptions
Interaction can push people to “defend” their position, hence providing explanations for their reasoning
Using Focus Groups - 1
Purpose
Explore people’s views, perceptions and attitudes
Discover how people “see reality,” and capture the diversity of their views
Investigate complex behavior and motivations
Using Focus Groups -2
Purpose
Learn the “vocabulary of the participants” and understand their thinking patterns
Learn about people views in response to others’ views
Obtain in-depth knowledge by listening as the participants share and compare their experiences, feelings and opinions
Using Focus Groups? (3)
Projects That Use Focus Groups Self Contained Focus Groups: a typical focus group study
consists of a series of at least three focus groups
Problem Identification: to identify problems that needs to be addressed, or generate hypothesis for further research
Monitoring Program Implementation: to gather information to improve program implementation
Program Evaluation: to assess the outcome of a program, or an intervention
Planning for Focus Groups Getting Started:
Understand the purpose and outcomes of your project and their connection to the design and implementation of focus groups
Decide on the Level of Group Structure Exploratory---non-
structured Answering pre-
determined specific questions---structured
Determining the Interview Content
Selecting and Recruiting Participants
Choosing a Moderator Define the role of the
moderator Select or train skilled
moderators
Logistical Considerations Location, time and dates
of the interview session Setting up Cost
Data Analysis Ethical Considerations
Determining the Interview Content Prepare a well thought out interview guide
The Interview Guide
Welcomes and participants’ introductions
Opening the session: Introduce the focus of the discussion, set the ground rules, provide background and purpose and emphasize the commonalities among the group members
Introductory questions: break the ice, get the conversation going, invite general reflections, and give the participants a glimpse on how others view the topic
Key Questions: they are central to obtaining the information the focus group is designed to get to
Determining the Interview Content (2)
The Interview Guide Ending the session: closing the discussion
Invite participants to consider what had been said, and make a general comment offering an opportunity to clarify inconsistencies and point out what was the most important and significant aspects of the discussion.
Summarize what had been said and ask for feedback
Check with the participant if they have anything to add, if the discussion missed any salient issue not covered
Time 1-2 hours
Determining the Interview Content (3)
Nature of Questions Use open ended-questions in a systematic succession
Go from the general to more specific probes
Avoid Dichotomous and “Why” questions Why questions invite rationalization, and “should” rather than “what
is” answers Focus on “What’ and “How” questions
Standardized type of questions could be used
Sentence Completion Conceptual Mapping; develop categories and classifications systems
Invite respondents to “speak” from experience and answer
questions based on what they have done not what they would have done in the future.
On occasion allow for “spontaneous” emerging questions
Pilot test and seek feedback from the participants regarding the questions
Determining the Interview Content (4) Examples of Questions
Can you talk about…?
Do you have some thoughts…?
What does your department do to…?
What kind of…?
How do you feel about…?
If you ever have a problem what/ who…?
Two Main Questioning Techniques: Probe:
Would you explain further?
Would you give me an example of what you mean?
Would say more?
Is there anything else?
Please describe what you mean
Is there anything else?
Pause: 5 seconds pause after comments prompts others to share their views
Selecting The Participants
Group Composition:
A certain degree of commonality
Variations/Segmentation based on variables dictated by the research goals and questions
Group Size:
Ranges from 4-12 participants (some authors suggest other numbers)
Ideal 6-9
General criteria: small enough to allow for in depth probing and getting into specialized insight, and large enough to provide diverse and rich data
Number of Groups
Theoretical sampling and Theoretical data saturation (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
Selecting The Participants
General Selection Guidelines Identify the characteristics of the people you need in the
group and make sure they are tightly connected to your research questions
Number of groups needed:
Use theoretical sampling and theoretical saturation (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
Avoid Selection Bias
Know your participants’ characteristics and asses their potential contribution to the data collection process
Ask for nominations
Randomization: do not depend on those who are naturally loud and visible or claim interest and expertise
Use randomization if the research study aims at reaching generalizations
Choosing a Moderator
“ The best moderator is not the one with the most experience at moderating, but the one who can help you learn the most from the participants that you need to listen to” (Morgan, p. 48, 1998)
Choosing a Moderator (2) Characteristics of the Successful Moderator:
Is genuinely curious, knowledgeable, interested in the topic
discussed, and always practice active listening Is self-disciplined and hold back the urge of sharing their own
views or commenting on those shared Shows respect to all the participants and to the value of their
insights regardless of their background, level of skills, or inner clarity
Has a friendly demeanor and help establish a safe atmosphere where participants feel ready to self disclose
Choosing a Moderator (3) Has sufficient background knowledge about the topic to
be able to follow up on emerging ideas and insights
Able to communicate clearly and precisely
Familiar with the questioning guidelines
Can listen and think simultaneously
Has a past-present-future time perspective all through the discussion: remember what has been said, notice what is currently taking place and know/decide on what the next step/topic of the discussion should be
Choosing a Moderator (4)
Role : Exercises a mild unobtrusive control to guide the conversation and
keep the group on task
Acts as a catalyst to stimulates the discussion making sure that everyone participates equally with no one dominating the discussion or becoming withdrawn
Variety of Approaches
Look for understanding, act as a novice seeking wisdom
Be the expert; stimulate discussions by acting as a consultant who help group members clarify their thinking
Challenge participants to explain and justify their ideas
Act as a “referee” among opposing views
Be a therapist who is probing for information on why people think the way they do
Is ready to respond to all kind of personalities and attitudes [the shy, the reluctant, the dominant talker…]
Logistical Considerations
Recording the Focused Interview Session
Tape Recording
Written Notes:
1-2 note takers; one to focus on the verbal exchanges and the other to record non-verbal cues
Notes should be complete and considered as a backup in case the tape recording did not function
Prepare a brief summary of key points as soon as possible
Video Taping
Cost
Incentives for participants and/or note takers
Equipment and room cost
Data transcription, printing…
Data Analysis
Focus group interviewing generates very complex and rich data Each session produces 10-15 pages of notes and up to
50 pages of transcribed data
Importance of considering “non-verbal’ data
Importance of seeing the data collected as a product of the individual and group interplay at all times
Avoid delaying the data analysis
Seek and include feedback from participants
Some Strategies Full Transcript analysis
Tape Based analysis
Note-Based analysis
Memory-Based analysis
Ethical issues
Privacy:
In relation to the researchers
In relation to the other participants
Solutions:
Anonymity [ no one knows who said what]: an impossible goal
Confidentiality: a promise made among participants and with the research team
References
Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research (2nd ed.) CA: Sage publications.
Janesick, V. J. (1998). “Stretching” Exercises for Qualitative Researchers.CA: Sage publications.
Merton, R.K., & Kendall, P.L. (1990). The Focused Interview (2nd ed.) New York: Free Press.
Morgan, D. L. (1998).The Focus Group Guidebook: Focus Group Kit1. CA: Sage publications
Morgan, D. L. (1998). Planning for Focus Groups: Focus Group Kit2. CA: Sage publications.
Morgan, D. L. (1997). Focus Groups As Qualitative Reasearch (2nd ed.): Qualitative Research Methods Series 16. CA: Sage publications