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Emile DurkheimEmile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim, 1858-1917Emile Durkheim, 1858-1917

Major ContributionsMajor Contributions Several major contributions to sociology:Several major contributions to sociology:

– Distinguishing and elaborating the field of Distinguishing and elaborating the field of sociology from other social sciencessociology from other social sciences

– Emphasis on empirical data to lend support to Emphasis on empirical data to lend support to theoretical speculationstheoretical speculations

– Focus on the division of labor and its Focus on the division of labor and its consequences for social lifeconsequences for social life

– Collective conscience or the need for a Collective conscience or the need for a common core of values and moral rulescommon core of values and moral rules

– FunctionalismFunctionalism

Social FactsSocial Facts

According to Durkheim, social facts are the According to Durkheim, social facts are the subject matter of sociology. Social facts subject matter of sociology. Social facts are “sui generis” (meaning of its own kind; are “sui generis” (meaning of its own kind; unique) and must be studied distinct from unique) and must be studied distinct from biological and psychological phenomenon.biological and psychological phenomenon.


Social facts can be defined as patterns of Social facts can be defined as patterns of behavior that are capable of exercising behavior that are capable of exercising some coercive power upon individuals. some coercive power upon individuals. They are guides and controls of conduct They are guides and controls of conduct and are external to the individual in the and are external to the individual in the form of norms, mores, and folkways.form of norms, mores, and folkways.

Social FactSocial Fact

““A social fact is identifiable through the A social fact is identifiable through the power of external coercion which it exerts power of external coercion which it exerts or is capable of exerting upon individuals” or is capable of exerting upon individuals” (Durkheim, [1895] 1982, p. 56). (Durkheim, [1895] 1982, p. 56).


Through socialization and education these Through socialization and education these rules become internalized in the rules become internalized in the consciousness of the individual. These consciousness of the individual. These constraints and guides become moral constraints and guides become moral obligations to obey social rules.obligations to obey social rules.

Human DualismHuman Dualism

““There are in each of us…two consciences: There are in each of us…two consciences: one which is common to our group in its one which is common to our group in its entirety…the other, on the contrary, entirety…the other, on the contrary, represents that in us which is personal represents that in us which is personal and distinct, that which makes us an and distinct, that which makes us an individual” ([1893] 1933: 129). individual” ([1893] 1933: 129).


““Because society surpasses us, it obliges us Because society surpasses us, it obliges us to surpass ourselves, and to surpass to surpass ourselves, and to surpass itself, a being must, to some degree, itself, a being must, to some degree, depart from its nature—a departure that depart from its nature—a departure that does not take place without causing more does not take place without causing more or less painful tensions” (Elementary or less painful tensions” (Elementary Forms [1914] 1973, p. 163). Forms [1914] 1973, p. 163).


““It is not without reason, therefore, that man It is not without reason, therefore, that man feels himself to be double: he actually is feels himself to be double: he actually is double….In brief, this duality corresponds double….In brief, this duality corresponds to the double existence that we lead to the double existence that we lead concurrently; the one purely individual and concurrently; the one purely individual and rooted in our organisms, the other social rooted in our organisms, the other social and nothing but an extension of society” and nothing but an extension of society” (Elementary Forms, [1914] 1973, p. 162).(Elementary Forms, [1914] 1973, p. 162).


Our purely individual side seeks satisfaction Our purely individual side seeks satisfaction of all wants and desires. It knows no of all wants and desires. It knows no boundaries. This side of human beings boundaries. This side of human beings quickly leads to a condition that Durkheim quickly leads to a condition that Durkheim labels as “anomie.”labels as “anomie.”

AnomieAnomie

““It is this anomic state that is the cause, as It is this anomic state that is the cause, as we shall show, of the incessantly recurrent we shall show, of the incessantly recurrent conflicts, and the multifarious disorders of conflicts, and the multifarious disorders of which the economic world exhibits so sad which the economic world exhibits so sad a spectacle” ([1893] 1933: 5).a spectacle” ([1893] 1933: 5).

AnomieAnomie

Durkheim characterized the modern Durkheim characterized the modern individual as insufficiently integrated into individual as insufficiently integrated into society. Because of these weakening society. Because of these weakening bonds, social regulation breaks down and bonds, social regulation breaks down and the controlling influence of society on the the controlling influence of society on the desires and interests of the individual is desires and interests of the individual is rendered ineffective; individuals are left to rendered ineffective; individuals are left to their own devices. their own devices.

AnomieAnomie

Because of the dual nature of human beings Because of the dual nature of human beings this breakdown of moral guidance results this breakdown of moral guidance results in rising rates of deviance, social unrest, in rising rates of deviance, social unrest, unhappiness, and stress.unhappiness, and stress.

AnomieAnomie

"The more one has, the more one wants, "The more one has, the more one wants, since satisfactions received only stimulate since satisfactions received only stimulate instead of filling needs" (1951, p. 248). instead of filling needs" (1951, p. 248).

AnomieAnomie

““When there is no other aim but to outstrip When there is no other aim but to outstrip constantly the point arrived at, how painful constantly the point arrived at, how painful to be thrown back!...Since imagination is to be thrown back!...Since imagination is hungry for novelty, and ungoverned, it hungry for novelty, and ungoverned, it gropes at random” ([1897] 1951, p. 257).gropes at random” ([1897] 1951, p. 257).

AnomieAnomie

““Unlimited desires are insatiable by Unlimited desires are insatiable by definition and insatiability is rightly definition and insatiability is rightly considered a sign of morbidity. Being considered a sign of morbidity. Being unlimited, they constantly and infinitely unlimited, they constantly and infinitely surpass the means at their command; they surpass the means at their command; they cannot be quenched. Inextinguishable cannot be quenched. Inextinguishable thirst is constantly renewed torture" thirst is constantly renewed torture" ([1897] 1951, p. 247). ([1897] 1951, p. 247).

AnomieAnomie

““To the extent that the individual is left to his To the extent that the individual is left to his own devices and freed from all social own devices and freed from all social constraint, he is unfettered too by all moral constraint, he is unfettered too by all moral constraint” (Professional Ethics and Civic constraint” (Professional Ethics and Civic Morals, Durkheim [1950] p. 7).Morals, Durkheim [1950] p. 7).

AnomieAnomie

Durkheim identifies two major causes of Durkheim identifies two major causes of anomie: the division of labor, and rapid anomie: the division of labor, and rapid social change. Both of these are, of social change. Both of these are, of course, associated with modernity.course, associated with modernity.

AnomieAnomie

An increasing division of labor weakens the An increasing division of labor weakens the sense of identification with the wider sense of identification with the wider community and thereby weakens community and thereby weakens constraints on human behavior. These constraints on human behavior. These conditions lead to social “disintegration”—conditions lead to social “disintegration”—high rates of egocentric behavior, norm high rates of egocentric behavior, norm violation, and consequent de-legitimation violation, and consequent de-legitimation and distrust of authority.and distrust of authority.

Collective ConscienceCollective Conscience

According to Durkheim, the desires and self-According to Durkheim, the desires and self-interests of human beings can only be interests of human beings can only be held in check by forces that originate held in check by forces that originate outside of the individual. Durkheim outside of the individual. Durkheim characterizes this external force as a characterizes this external force as a collective conscience, a common social collective conscience, a common social bond that is expressed by the ideas, bond that is expressed by the ideas, values, norms, beliefs, and ideologies of a values, norms, beliefs, and ideologies of a culture.culture.


““As there is nothing within an individual As there is nothing within an individual which constrains these appetites, they which constrains these appetites, they must surely be contained by some force must surely be contained by some force exterior to him, or else they would become exterior to him, or else they would become insatiable—that is morbid” [1928] 1978, p. insatiable—that is morbid” [1928] 1978, p. 213). 213).


As the collective conscience originates with As the collective conscience originates with society, Durkheim elaborated the cause society, Durkheim elaborated the cause and effects of weakening group ties (and and effects of weakening group ties (and thus a weakening of the collective thus a weakening of the collective conscience) on the individual in his two conscience) on the individual in his two works, works, The Division of Labor in SocietyThe Division of Labor in Society (1893) and (1893) and SuicideSuicide (1897). (1897).


In In The Division of LaborThe Division of Labor, Durkheim identifies , Durkheim identifies two forms or types of solidarity, which are two forms or types of solidarity, which are based on different sources. Mechanical based on different sources. Mechanical solidarity is “solidarity which comes from solidarity is “solidarity which comes from likeness and is at its maximum when the likeness and is at its maximum when the collective conscience completely envelops collective conscience completely envelops our whole conscience and coincides in all our whole conscience and coincides in all points with it.” points with it.”

Collective Conscience: MechanicalCollective Conscience: Mechanical

Mechanical solidarity occurs in early Mechanical solidarity occurs in early societies in which there is not much societies in which there is not much division of labor. Such societies are division of labor. Such societies are relatively homogenous, men and women relatively homogenous, men and women engage in similar tasks and daily activities, engage in similar tasks and daily activities, people have similar experiences. In such people have similar experiences. In such societies the few distinct institutions societies the few distinct institutions express similar values and norms and express similar values and norms and tend to reinforce one another.tend to reinforce one another.


The norms, values, and beliefs of the The norms, values, and beliefs of the society (or the collective conscience) are society (or the collective conscience) are so homogenous and confront the so homogenous and confront the individual with such overwhelming and individual with such overwhelming and consistent force, that there is little consistent force, that there is little opportunity in such societies for opportunity in such societies for individuality or deviance from this individuality or deviance from this collective conscience.collective conscience.


According to Durkheim, traditional cultures According to Durkheim, traditional cultures experience a high level of social and moral experience a high level of social and moral integration, there was little individuation, integration, there was little individuation, and most behaviors were governed by and most behaviors were governed by social norms which were usually social norms which were usually embodied in religion.embodied in religion.


By engaging in the same activities and By engaging in the same activities and rituals, people in traditional societies rituals, people in traditional societies shared common moral values, which shared common moral values, which Durkheim called a collective conscience. Durkheim called a collective conscience. In these societies, people tend to regard In these societies, people tend to regard themselves as members of a group; the themselves as members of a group; the collective conscience embraces individual collective conscience embraces individual awareness, and there is little sense of awareness, and there is little sense of personal options.personal options.

Collective Conscience: OrganicCollective Conscience: Organic

Organic solidarity develops as a by-product Organic solidarity develops as a by-product of the division of labor. As society of the division of labor. As society becomes more complex, individuals play becomes more complex, individuals play more specialized roles and become ever more specialized roles and become ever more dissimilar in their social experiences, more dissimilar in their social experiences, material interests, values, and beliefs.material interests, values, and beliefs.


Individuals in such a sociocultural system Individuals in such a sociocultural system have less in common; however, they must have less in common; however, they must become more dependent upon each other become more dependent upon each other for their survivalfor their survival


The growth of individualism is an inevitable The growth of individualism is an inevitable result of the increasing division of labor, result of the increasing division of labor, and this individualism can only develop at and this individualism can only develop at the expense of the common values, the expense of the common values, morality, beliefs, and normative rules of morality, beliefs, and normative rules of society—the sentiments and beliefs that society—the sentiments and beliefs that are held by all.are held by all.


With the loosening of these common rules With the loosening of these common rules and values we also lose our sense of and values we also lose our sense of community, or identity with the group. The community, or identity with the group. The social bond is thereby weakened and social bond is thereby weakened and social values and beliefs no longer provide social values and beliefs no longer provide us with coherent or insistent moral us with coherent or insistent moral guidance.guidance.


And this loosening lends itself to anomie. And this loosening lends itself to anomie. Again, according to Durkheim, if an Again, according to Durkheim, if an individual lacks any sense of social individual lacks any sense of social restraint her self-interest will be restraint her self-interest will be unleashed, she will seek to satisfy her own unleashed, she will seek to satisfy her own appetites with little thought on the possible appetites with little thought on the possible effect her action will have on others.effect her action will have on others.


Instead of asking “is this moral?” or “does Instead of asking “is this moral?” or “does my family approve?” the individual is more my family approve?” the individual is more likely to ask “does this action meet my likely to ask “does this action meet my needs?” The individual is left to find her needs?” The individual is left to find her own way in the world—a world in which own way in the world—a world in which personal options for behavior have personal options for behavior have multiplied as strong and insistent norms multiplied as strong and insistent norms and moral guidelines have weakened.and moral guidelines have weakened.

ReligionReligion

As Durkheim was concerned with moral As Durkheim was concerned with moral behavior and social justice he naturally behavior and social justice he naturally turned to the study of religionturned to the study of religion

ReligionReligion

All religions divide social life into two All religions divide social life into two spheres, the “sacred” and the “profane.” spheres, the “sacred” and the “profane.” There is nothing intrinsic about a particular There is nothing intrinsic about a particular object which makes it sacred. An object object which makes it sacred. An object becomes sacred only when the community becomes sacred only when the community invests it with that meaning.invests it with that meaning.

ReligionReligion

[Religion is] "an eminently collective thing" [Religion is] "an eminently collective thing" (1954, p.47). It serves to bind a (1954, p.47). It serves to bind a community together.community together.

ReligionReligion

““A religion is a unified system of beliefs and A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden--to say, things set apart and forbidden--beliefs and practices which unite in one beliefs and practices which unite in one single community called a Church, all single community called a Church, all those who adhere to them" (1954, p. 47). those who adhere to them" (1954, p. 47).

ReligionReligion

"The believer who has communicated with "The believer who has communicated with his god is not merely a man who sees new his god is not merely a man who sees new truths of which the unbeliever is ignorant; truths of which the unbeliever is ignorant; he is a man who is stronger. He feels he is a man who is stronger. He feels within him more force, wither to endure the within him more force, wither to endure the trials of existence, or to conquer them" trials of existence, or to conquer them" (1954, p. 416). (1954, p. 416).

ReligionReligion

"Thus there is something eternal in religion "Thus there is something eternal in religion which is destined to survive all the which is destined to survive all the particular symbols in which religious particular symbols in which religious thought has successively enveloped itself. thought has successively enveloped itself. There can be no society which does not There can be no society which does not feel the need of upholding and reaffirming feel the need of upholding and reaffirming at regular intervals the collective at regular intervals the collective sentiments and the collective ideas which sentiments and the collective ideas which make its unity and its personality. ..make its unity and its personality. ..

ReligionReligion

““Now this moral remaking cannot be achieved Now this moral remaking cannot be achieved except by the means of reunions, assemblies, except by the means of reunions, assemblies, and meetings where the individuals, being and meetings where the individuals, being closely united to one another, reaffirm in closely united to one another, reaffirm in common their common sentiments; hence come common their common sentiments; hence come ceremonies which do not differ from regular ceremonies which do not differ from regular religious ceremonies, either in their object, the religious ceremonies, either in their object, the results which they produce, or the processes results which they produce, or the processes employed to attain these results. ..employed to attain these results. ..

ReligionReligion

““What essential difference is there between What essential difference is there between an assembly of Christians celebrating the an assembly of Christians celebrating the principal dates in the life of Christ, or of principal dates in the life of Christ, or of Jews remembering the exodus from Egypt Jews remembering the exodus from Egypt or the promulgation of the Decalogue, and or the promulgation of the Decalogue, and a reunion of citizens commemorating the a reunion of citizens commemorating the promulgation of a new moral or legal promulgation of a new moral or legal system or some great event in the national system or some great event in the national life?" (1954, p. 427). life?" (1954, p. 427).

ReligionReligion

Durkheim then goes a step further. Religion Durkheim then goes a step further. Religion is not only a social creation; it is the power is not only a social creation; it is the power of the community itself that is being of the community itself that is being worshiped. The power of the community worshiped. The power of the community over the individual so transcends over the individual so transcends individual existence that people individual existence that people collectively give it sacred significance.collectively give it sacred significance.

ReligionReligion

By worshiping God people are unwittingly By worshiping God people are unwittingly worshiping the power of the collective over worshiping the power of the collective over them—a power that both created and them—a power that both created and guides them. They are worshiping society guides them. They are worshiping society itself.itself.

ReligionReligion

It is religion is one of the main forces that It is religion is one of the main forces that make up the collective conscience; make up the collective conscience; religion which allows the individual to religion which allows the individual to transcend self and act for the social good. transcend self and act for the social good. But traditional religion was weakening But traditional religion was weakening under the onslaught of the division of under the onslaught of the division of labor; what could replace religion as the labor; what could replace religion as the common bond?common bond?

ReligionReligion

““The great things of the past which filled our The great things of the past which filled our fathers with enthusiasm do not excite the fathers with enthusiasm do not excite the same ardor in us...In a word, the old gods same ardor in us...In a word, the old gods are growing old or already dead, and are growing old or already dead, and others are not yet born...But this state of others are not yet born...But this state of incertitude and confused agitation cannot incertitude and confused agitation cannot last for ever. ..last for ever. ..

ReligionReligion

““A day will come when our societies will know A day will come when our societies will know again those hours of creative effervescence, in again those hours of creative effervescence, in the course of which new formulae are found the course of which new formulae are found which serve for a while as a guide to humanity; which serve for a while as a guide to humanity; and when these hours shall have been passed and when these hours shall have been passed through once, men will spontaneously feel the through once, men will spontaneously feel the need of reliving them from time to time in need of reliving them from time to time in thought, that is to say, of keeping alive their thought, that is to say, of keeping alive their memory by means of celebrations which memory by means of celebrations which regularly reproduce their fruits. ..regularly reproduce their fruits. ..

ReligionReligion

““We have already seen how the French We have already seen how the French Revolution established a whole cycle of Revolution established a whole cycle of holidays to keep the principles with which holidays to keep the principles with which it was inspired in a state of perpetual it was inspired in a state of perpetual youth... youth...

ReligionReligion

““There are no gospels which are immortal, There are no gospels which are immortal, but neither is there any reason for but neither is there any reason for believing that humanity is incapable of believing that humanity is incapable of inventing new ones” (1954, pp. 475-476).inventing new ones” (1954, pp. 475-476).

ReligionReligion

While men are losing faith in the old While men are losing faith in the old religions, new religions will be born. For all religions, new religions will be born. For all societies feel the need to express their societies feel the need to express their collective sentiments, ideas, and collective sentiments, ideas, and ideologies in regular ceremony. All ideologies in regular ceremony. All societies need a set of common values societies need a set of common values and moral guidelines to inspire their and moral guidelines to inspire their members to transcend their selfishness.members to transcend their selfishness.

ReligionReligion

While the forms and particular symbols may While the forms and particular symbols may change, religion is eternal.change, religion is eternal.

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