21.-22.7.15 A. Geiser, Particle Physics 1
Elementary Particle Physics Research
Introduction to particle
physics for non-specialists rather elementary
more details -> specialized lectures
particle physics in general
some emphasis on DESY-related topics
Achim Geiser, DESY Hamburg
Summer Student Lecture, 21.-22.7.15
thanks to B. Foster for some
of the nicest slides/animations
other sources:
www pages of DESY and CERN
Scope of this lecture:
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What is Particle Physics?
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What is “science”?
Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
First large scale scientific experiment: proposal: Galilei 1632
realisation: Pierre Gassendi 1640
French navy Galley with
international crew of ~100 people(fraction of students not reported)
=>
5 m/s
?
cannonball
M. Risch
Physik in Unserer Zeit
38 (5) (2007) 249
Wikipedia.org:
Galileo Galilei historically recorded^
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Classical view: particles = discrete objects.energy concentrated into finite space with definite boundaries.
Particles exist at a specific location.
-> Newtonian mechanics
Modern view:
particles = objects with discrete quantum numbers, e.g. charge, mass, ...not necessarily located at a specific position,
(Heisenberg uncertainty principle)
can also be represented by wave functions.
(Quantum mechanics, particle/wave duality)
What is a „particle“?
Isaac
Newton
Werner
Heisenberg
Erwin
Schrödinger
Niels
Bohr
Louis
de Broglie
(Nobel 1922)
(Nobel 1933)(Nobel 1929) (Nobel 1932)
(Principia 1687)
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What is „elementary“?
Greek: atomos = smallest indivisible part
Dmitry
Ivanowitsch
Mendeleyev
1868
(elements)
Ernest
Rutherford
1911
(nucleus)
Murray
Gell-Mann
1962
(quarks)
(Nobel 1969)
(Nobel 1908)
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AD
History of basic building blocks of matter
motivation: find smallest possible number
π−−−−ποοοο
π++++Λ++++
pΣ0000
∆++++++++
∆οοοο
∆++++∆−−−−
Ω−−−−
Κ++++Κ0000Κ−−−−
Super-
symmetry
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Which “interactions”?
at ~ 1 GeV
-2
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HiggsBosonHiggsBoson
ZZ boson
WW boson
γphoton
ggluon
τtau
νττ-neutrino
bbottom
ttop
µmuon
νµµ-neutrino
sstrange
ccharm
eelectron
νee-neutrino
ddown
upu
Lept
ons
Qua
rks
What we know today
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The Power of Conservation Laws
e.g. radioactive neutron decay:
n p + e-+ νe
Pauli 1930:
not visible
Wolfgang
Pauli
(Nobel 1945)
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confirmation: neutrino detection
e.g. reversed reaction:
νe+ n p + eextremely rare!
(absorption length ~ 3 light years Pb)
first detection: 1956
Reines and Cowan, neutrinos from nuclear reactor
Frederick Reines(Nobel 1995)
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The power of symmetries: Parity
Will physical processes look the
same when viewed through a mirror?
In everyday day life: violation of parity symmetry is common
„natural“: our heart is on the left
„spontaneous“: cars drive on the right (on the continent)
What about basic interactions?
Electromagnetic and strong interactions conserve parity!
Eugene
Wigner
(Nobel 1963)
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The power of symmetries: Parity
Lee & Yang 1956: weak interactions violate Parityexperimentally verified by Wu et al. 1957:
spin
consequence:
neutrinos arealwayslefthanded !(antineutrinos righthanded)
Chen
Ning
Yang
Tsung
-Dao
Lee
Chieng
Shiung
Wu
(Nobel
1957)
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The Power of Quantum Numbers
1948: discovery of muon
same quantum numbers as electron, except mass
muon decay: µ- -> νµ e- νeconservation of
electric charge -1 0 -1 0
lepton number: 1 1 1 -1 ν = ν (1955)
„muon number“: 1 1 0 0 νµ = νe (1962)
There is a distinct neutrino for each charged lepton
Who ordered THAT ?
I.I. Rabi(Nobel 1944)
Leon M. Melvin JackLedermann Schwartz Steinberger
(Nobel 1988)
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The Power of Precision
Precision measurements of shape and height of Z0 resonance at LEP I
(CERN 1990’s)
e+e- -> Z0
number of
(light) neutrino
flavours = 3Gerardus Martinust’Hooft Veltman
(Nobel 1999)
ν
ν
ν
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Can we “see” particles?
we can!
bubble
chamber
photo
Luis Walter Alvarez (Nobel 1968)
Donald Arthur Glaser (Nobel 1960)
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A typical particle physics detector
see e.g. ARGUS
near DESY entrance
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Why do we need colliders?
early discoveries in cosmic rays, but
need controlled conditions
need high energy to discover new heavy particles
colliders =microscopes (later)
LEP/LHC
CERN
Mont Blanc
2c
Em =
Albert Einstein(Nobel 1921)
V.F. Hess(Nobel 1936)
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The HERA ep Collider and ExperimentsData taking stopped summer 2007. Data analysis ongoing until 2014 and beyond.
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Particle Physics = People
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strong force in nuclear interactions= „exchange of massive pions“ between nucleons= residual Van der Waals-like interaction
Strong Interactions: Quarks and Colour
modern view: (Quantum Chromo-Dynamics, QCD)
exchange of massless gluons between quarkconstituents
„similar“ to electromagnetism(Quantum Electro-Dynamics, QED)
p
ππππn
(Nobel 1949)Hideki Yukawa
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The Quark Model (1964)
ud
s
S=0
S=-1
Q=2/3Q=-1/3
arrange quarks (known at that time) into flavour-triplet
=> SU(3)flavour symmetry
treat all known hadrons
(protons, neutrons, pions, ...)
as objects composed of
two or three such
quarks (antiquarks)
Murray
Gell-Mann
(Nobel 1969)
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The Quark Model
baryons = qqq mesons = qq
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Colour
Quark model very successful, but seems to violatequantum numbers (Fermi statistics), e.g.
=> introduce new degree of freedom:
3 coulours -> SU(3)colour qqq = qq = white!
q
q q
qg
g g
q
q
g
gg
gg
uuu++∆ = ↑↑↑
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Screening of Electric Charge
electric charge polarises
vacuum -> virtual electron positron pairs
positrons partially screen
electron charge
effective charge/force decreases at large
distances/low energy (screening)
increases at small distance/large energy
Sin-Itoro Julian Richard P.
Tomonaga Schwinger Feynman
(Nobel 1965)
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Anti-Screening of Coulour Charge!
quark-antiquark pairs -> screeninggluons carry colour -> gg pairs
-> anti-screening!
1/r2~E2,
asymptotic
freedomconf
inem
ent
(Nobel 2004)
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Comparison QED / QCD
electromagnetism strong interactions
The underlying theories are formally almost identical!
QED QCD
1 kind of charge (q) 3 kinds of charge (r,g,b)force mediated by photons force mediated by gluonsphotons are neutral gluons are charged (eg. rg, bb, gb)α is nearly constant αs strongly depends on distance
confinement limit:
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The effective potential for qq interactions
asymptotic freedom
confinement
lattice
gauge
calculation
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Heavy Quark Spectroscopy
Positronium = bound e+e- system
Charmonium = bound system
of cc quark pair
1974
Burton
Richter
Samuel
C.C.
Ting
(Nobel
1976)
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calculation of proton mass in QCD
from lattice gauge theory:
spontaneous breakdown of “chiral symmetry” (left-right-symmetry) yields QCD “vacuum” expectation value
⇒proton mass, ⇒mass of the visible part of the universe !
Yoichiro
Nambu
(Nobel 2008)
p
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How to detect Quarks and Gluons?
cms energy 30 GeV.
Lines of crosses - reconstructed trajectories in drift chambers (gas ionisation detectors).
Photons - dotted lines - detected by lead-glass Cerenkov counters.
Two opposite jets.
hadrons
e+ e-
q
q
hadrons
Example of the hadron production in e+e-
annihilation in the JADE detector at the PETRA e+e- collider at DESY, Germany.
Jets!
Georges
Charpak
(Nobel 1992)
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PETRA at DESY: look for
Discovery of the Gluon (1979)
Günter Wolf Sau Lan Wu
Björn Wiik Paul Söding
TASSO event picture
(EPS prize 1995)
ααααs
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Jets in ep and pp interactions
HERA
LHC
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Running strong coupling „constant“ ααααs
(HERA)(LEP, PETRA)
e.g. from jet production at e+e-, ep, and pp at DESY, Fermilab and CERN
courtesy T. Dorigo
similar for ATLAS
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How to determine the „size“ of a particle?
microscope:
low resolution
-> small instrument
high resolution
-> large instrument
resolution ~ 10-18 m = 1/1000 of size of a proton
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How to resolve the structure of an object?
e.g. X-rays
(Hasylab,
FLASH,
PETRA III,
XFEL) E~ keV
-> structure of
a biomolecule
accelerator
probe
scattering image
Ada Yonath(Nobel 2009)
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Resolve the structure of the proton
E ~ MeV
resolve whole proton
static quark model,
valence quarks
(m ~ 350 MeV)
E ~ mp ~ 1 GeV
resolve valence quarks
and their motion
E >> 1 GeV
resolve quark and gluon
“sea”
Jerome I.
Friedmann
Henry W.
Kendall
Richard E.
Taylor(Nobel 1990)
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At higher and higherresolutions, the quarksemit gluons, which also emit gluons, which emit quarks, which…….
Heisenberg’s UPallows gluons, and qqpairs to be produced for a very short time.
Low Q2 (large λ)Medium Q2 (medium λ)
Large Q2 (short λ)
At highest Q2, λλλλ ~ 1/Q ~ 10-18 m
Inside the proton
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e
q
e
pp remnant
Deep Inelastic ep Scattering at HERA
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Deep Inelastic Scattering (DIS)
(in QPM)
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The Proton Structure
structure functions quark and gluon densities
Amanda
Cooper-Sarkar(Chadwick medal 2015)
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Kinematic regions: HERA vs. LHC
proton structure measured directly for large part of LHC phase space
QCD evolution successful
-> safely extrapolate to higher Q2
HERA
LHC Tevatron
fixed
target
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Example: Higgs cross section at LHC
H -> γγγγγγγγ in ATLAS
Kerstin Tackmann(Hertha Sponer prize 2013)
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Intermediate summary
Particle physics: Symmetries and conservation laws are important
many exciting results at DESY, CERN and elsewhere!
HERA closed down, but particle physics at DESY alive and well
tomorrow: weak interactions, Higgs,
(neutrinos), cosmology,
future of particle physics
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The Theory of GLASHOW, SALAM and WEINBERG
Theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction,transmitted by exchange of “intermediate vector bosons”
Weak Interactions
~ 1959-1968
(Nobel 1979)
mass generated
by Higgs field
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To produce the heavy W and Z bosons (m ~ 80-90 GeV)need high energy collider!
1978-80: conversion of SPS proton accelerator at CERN into proton-antiproton colliderchallenge: make antiproton beam!
success! -> first W and Z produced
1982/83
Discovery of the W and Z (1983)
Z0 -> e+e- UA1
Carlo
Rubbia
Simon
van der
Meer
(Nobel 1984)
Z production at LHC
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Now millions of events …yesterday’s signal is today’s background and tomorrow’s calibration
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only ν exchangeNo ZWW vertex
Three Boson Coupling @ LEP
W/Z bosons carry electroweak charge (like colour for gluons)
-> measure rate of W pair production at LEP II
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Electroweak Physics at HERA
Neutral Current (NC) interactions
Charged Current (CC) interactions
e
e
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Weak interactions are "left-handed"
lefthanded electrons interact (CC)
e-
righthanded electrons do not!
e-
cross section linearly proportional to polarization
polarizationpePpe
unpolCCepolCC
±±⋅±= σσ )1(
leftright
e-
e+
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Electroweak Unification
NC
CC
MW2
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The Quest for Unification of Forces
electric
magnetic
gravity
weak
strong
Maxwell’s
equations
Grand Unified Theories ?
Superstring Theories ?
Electroweak Unification
Big Bang
HERA
LHC
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ααααs running and Grand Unification
with SUSY (see later):
?
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relativistic Schrödinger equation (Dirac equation) two solutions: one with positive, one with negative energyDirac: interpret negative solution as
1932 antielectrons (positrons) found in conversion
of energy into matter
1995 antihydrogen consisting of antiprotons and positrons produced at CERN
In principle: antiworld can be built from antimatterIn practice: produced only in accelerators and in cosmic rays
Antimatter
P.A.M.
Dirac
(Nobel 1933)
C.D.Anderson(Nobel 1936)
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−+ +→ eeγ
Pair Production
e.g.
when radiation
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hfee 2 →+ −+
Annihilation
radiation
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As far as we can see in universe, no large-scale antimatter. -> need CP violation!
Why does the Universe look likethis not that?
The Matter Antimatter Puzzle
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-> particles, anti-particles and
photons in thermal equilibrium
– colliding, annihilating, being re-created etc.
Slight difference in fundamental interactions between matter and antimatter (“CP violation”) ?-> matter slightly more likely to survive
Ratio of baryons (e.g. p, n) to photons today tells us about this asymmetry - it is about 1:109
The Matter Antimatter Puzzle
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Parity
(reflection)
Charge Conjugation
(black →white)
Like weak interaction, symmetric under CP (at first sight!)Can there be small deviations from this symmetry?
CP symmetry
C
P
graphics: M.C. Escher
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Simply count decays as function of t!
+e −e
t2
Decay length ~ 1/4 mm
Second B decays (B0)
t
1
First B decays
K0s
d s
J/ψcc
(or )bd B 0d B 0
d
(((( ) =) =) =) =tAsymmetryB0
B0B0
B0
-
+
CP violation in B meson decays
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Example: measurement from BaBar at SLAC
B and anti-B are indeeddifferent
(also foundearlier forK decays: )
CP violation in B meson decays
(also Belle
at KEK)
(Nobel 1980)James W. Cronin
Val L.
Fitch data taking stopped.
Belle/Super-Belle continuing. M. Kobayashi T. Maskawa(Nobel 2008)
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CP violation measured so far not strong enough to explain matter-antimatter asymmetry
way out: CP violation in neutrino oscillationsand/or strong lepton number asymmetry in early universe.
Standard Model predicts baryon and lepton number violation through so-called „sphaleron“ process:converts 3 leptons into 3 baryons!
rare process at very high energy -> not observable so far
related process: QCD „instantons“
in principle observable at HERA or LHC still searching ...
DESY contribution to the antimatter puzzle?
I
uu d
ds
s
c
c
bb
Sphaleron
Instanton
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eelectron
νee-neutrino
ddown
upu
.
νµµ-neutrino
µmuon
ccharm
stranges
bbottom
ttop
τtau
νττ-neutrino
.
.
The Mystery of Mass
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P. Higgs et al. (1964-66,71)
many subvariants
which is right?
source: viXra blog
The Mass (BEH) Mechanism
Brout, Englert, Guralnik, Hagen, Kibble, …
Peter Higgs
François Englert
(Nobel 2013)
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Fermion Mass from Higgs field?
room = vacuum
people = Higgs vacuum expectation value
very brilliant scientist (fermion)
works with speed of light!
-> “massless”
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Fermion Mass from Higgs field?
scientist becomes famous!
enters room with people
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Fermion Mass from Higgs field?
people cluster around him
hamper his movement/working speed
-> he becomes “massive”!
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How much do Neutrinos weigh?
Standard Model has mν = 0
-> evidence for mνννν = 0
forces
this year no special neutrino lecture, sorry
from the lightest ...
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The quest for the top quark
Electroweak precision measurements at LEP/CERN
sensitive to top quark mass and Higgs mass (indirect effects)
-> Mt ~ 170 GeV
... to the heaviest
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The Tevatron (Fermilab)
data taking
ended in 2011
analysis still
ongoing
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Top quark discovery (Fermilab 1995)
Top quark actually found
where expected!
Tevatron at Fermilab
(CDF + D0)
measured mass value:
(PDG12)2
top GeV/c 0.15.173M ±=
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Precision @ LEP and Higgs
mH < 182 GeV at 95% CL
insert measured top mass into
precision measurements at LEP
-> now sensitive to Higgs mass
LEP direct lower limit:
mH > 114 GeV at 95% CL
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Precision @ LEP and Higgs at LHC
H->ZZ*-> 4 leptons
Special Fundamental Physics Prize 2013
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by the Milner Foundation
Peter
Jenni,ATLAS
Fabiola
Gianotti,ATLAS
Tejinder
Singh
Virdee,CMS
Joe
Incandela,CMS
Lyn
Evans,LHC
Michel
Della
NegraCMS
Guido
Tonelli,CMS
for their leadership role in the scientific endeavour
that led to the discovery of the new Higgs-like particle
by the ATLAS and CMS collaborations at CERN's Large Hadron Collider.
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Higgs production at LHC
measure
as many as
possible
to
check
Higgs
properties
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The LHC Project
Just restarted @ 13 TeV
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The DESY CMS group
Installation & Commissioning
Computing
Tracking, Tracker upgrade
Beam Condition Monitor
Forward detectors (CASTOR)
Data Quality Monitoringbuilding 1a, first floor
Physics
Standard Model
Forward Physics
Top + Higgs
Supersymmetry
CMS remote center at DESY
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The DESY ATLAS group
Trigger
Computing
Lumi monitor (ALFA)
sLHC upgrade
Physics:Standard Model
Top quarks
Supersymmetry
Higgs
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Supersymmetry
A way to solve theoretical problems with Unification of Forces: Supersymmetry
For each existing particle, introduce similar particle, with spin different by 1/2 unit
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Supersymmetry
double number of particles:
not seen at LEP, HERA, Tevatron ... -> must be heavy!
(still) hope to see them at LHC !
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Unification and Superstrings
To include gravity in unification of forces,need Superstrings (Supersymmetric strings)
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Superstring interaction
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Extra Dimensions?
Superstrings require more than 3+1 dimensions
additional “extra” dimensions -> “curled up”
- could be as large as a mm (?)
potentially measurable
effects, e.g. at LHC!
extra dimensions -> micro black holes?
extremely short-lived - no indications so far
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The case for an e+e- Linear Collider
Historically, hadron (proton) and electron colliders have yielded great symbiosis:
hadron colliders: discoveries at highest energies
electron colliders: discoveries and precision measurements
latest example: Tevatron/LEP (top),now Higgs at LHC
=> International Linear Collider!
for more see lectures K. Büsser
25
The ILC
Technical Design Report released (June 2013)
Hosting in Japan being discussed
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Example: Higgs Physics at the ILC
e–
e+ΖΖΖΖ
ΖΖΖΖ
H
e–
e+ΖΖΖΖ
ΖΖΖΖ
HH
H
f
f
t
t
e–
e+ΖΖΖΖ
H
Top-Yukawa couplingTop-Yukawa coupling
Yukawa couplingsYukawa couplings
Gauge couplingsGauge couplings
Self couplingSelf coupling
H
e– νννν
e+ νννν
WW
all measurable with high precision!
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Cosmology
increasing energy
-> going further
backwards in time
in the universe
-> getting closer to
the Big Bang
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LHC/ILC
HERA/LEP10 -35 s
Inflation ceases, expansioncontinues. Grand Unificationbreaks. Strong andelectroweak forces becomedistinguishable
Grand unification era
Grand unification era
Electroweak eraElectroweak era
10 -10 s
Electroweak force splits
Protons and neutrons form
Quarks combine to makeprotons and neutrons
Protons and neutrons form
Quarks combine to makeprotons and neutrons
10-4 sNuclei are formedNuclei are formed
Protons and neutronscombine to form heliumnuclei
100 s
300000 years
Atoms and light eraAtoms and light era
The Universe becomes transparent and fills withlight
300000 years
Hasylab,
FLASH,
PETRA III,
XFEL
Galaxy formationGalaxy formation
1000 M years
Galaxies begin to form
You!
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Elementary Particle Physics is exciting!
We already know a lot, but many open issues
Exciting new insights expected for the coming decade!