EgyptEgypt

Kingdom Along the NileKingdom Along the Nile

Egypt: IntroductionEgypt: Introduction

• A much more stable and hierarchical A much more stable and hierarchical entity than Mesopotamia, as we will entity than Mesopotamia, as we will see.see.

• After the unification of Upper and After the unification of Upper and Lower EgyptLower Egypt

• The empire lasted 2500-3000 years, The empire lasted 2500-3000 years, depending on interpretationdepending on interpretation

• Only one major episode of political Only one major episode of political fragmentation (2200-2000 BC)fragmentation (2200-2000 BC)

Location and Map of EgyptLocation and Map of Egypt

• Upper Egypt comprises Upper Egypt comprises the Nile deltathe Nile delta

• Lower Egypt comprises Lower Egypt comprises the Nile below the deltathe Nile below the delta

• The Nile is constantThe Nile is constant

• There is a predictable There is a predictable flood every springflood every spring

• Desert on either side Desert on either side contributed to its contributed to its isolationisolation

Ecology of the Nile Ecology of the Nile ValleyValley• The Nile has a regular pattern of rainfall, The Nile has a regular pattern of rainfall,

which floods the banks of the river regularly which floods the banks of the river regularly every spring and summer from the rainy every spring and summer from the rainy season further south in the Sudan and East season further south in the Sudan and East AfricaAfrica

• Flooding was more regular and predictable Flooding was more regular and predictable than the Tigris and Euphrates in than the Tigris and Euphrates in MesopotamiaMesopotamia

• Soil at either side was fertile because of the Soil at either side was fertile because of the floodingflooding

• Egypt also had precious metals, stone that Egypt also had precious metals, stone that was useful both for tools and constructionwas useful both for tools and construction

Demographics of the NileDemographics of the Nile

• The population itself was uniform, with the The population itself was uniform, with the same language and similar, if not the same language and similar, if not the same, culturesame, culture

• Stability was facilitated by its relative Stability was facilitated by its relative isolation, an advantage that Mesopotamia isolation, an advantage that Mesopotamia lacked.lacked.

• Thus, for 3,000 years, the political, Thus, for 3,000 years, the political, religious, and cultural areas was uniform religious, and cultural areas was uniform from the south to the delta. from the south to the delta.

Egyptian Neolithic: Egyptian Neolithic: OverviewOverview

• Domesticated PlantsDomesticated Plants

• Food plants: wheat and barleyFood plants: wheat and barley

• Fiber plants: flaxFiber plants: flax

• Domesticated animals: sheep, goats, Domesticated animals: sheep, goats, cattle, pigscattle, pigs

• Small villages formed along both Small villages formed along both banks of the Nilebanks of the Nile

Egyptian Neolithic: Egyptian Neolithic: MerimbeMerimbe• Merimbe, near Nile Delta (4900)Merimbe, near Nile Delta (4900)

• Subterranean oval houses with roofs Subterranean oval houses with roofs of sticks and mudof sticks and mud

• Tools: stone axes, knives, Tools: stone axes, knives, arrowheadsarrowheads

• Grains stored in ceramic jars, pits, Grains stored in ceramic jars, pits, basketsbaskets

• Circular clay-lined threshing floorCircular clay-lined threshing floor

Egyptian Neolithic: Egyptian Neolithic: BadariBadari

• Clusters of huts or skin tentsClusters of huts or skin tents• These were precursors of later burial These were precursors of later burial

customscustoms• Bodies lowered into circular or rectangular Bodies lowered into circular or rectangular

pits after faces painted with green coloringpits after faces painted with green coloring• Grave goods included utensils, food, ivory Grave goods included utensils, food, ivory

spoons, and vases of ivory or stonespoons, and vases of ivory or stone• Possibly the root of Egyptian burial customsPossibly the root of Egyptian burial customs• This statuette was buried with both men This statuette was buried with both men

and womenand women• Sexuality was emphasized, but they also Sexuality was emphasized, but they also

suggest rebirth and regeneration in the suggest rebirth and regeneration in the afterlifeafterlife

Pre-Dynastic Egypt: Central Pre-Dynastic Egypt: Central PlacesPlaces

• Nagada (Naqada)Nagada (Naqada)

• Early evidence of stratification: Early evidence of stratification: sumptuous burialssumptuous burials

• Control of large hinterland by 5500 BPControl of large hinterland by 5500 BP

• Hierkonopolis (Nehken)Hierkonopolis (Nehken)

• Center of pottery manufacture, whose Center of pottery manufacture, whose design appears throughout Egyptdesign appears throughout Egypt

• Center of a necropolis, or “city of the Center of a necropolis, or “city of the dead,” evidence by tombsdead,” evidence by tombs

• Left: Mace head of Scorpion II at Left: Mace head of Scorpion II at HierkonopolisHierkonopolis

The Principal Gods of Egypt The Principal Gods of Egypt I: I:

• Amon:Amon: (aka, Re, Ra and Aten) the (aka, Re, Ra and Aten) the god of the sun (depicted as the sun’s god of the sun (depicted as the sun’s rays; upper left)rays; upper left)

• He is also depicted as a scarab beetle He is also depicted as a scarab beetle who emerges in the morning (lower who emerges in the morning (lower left)left)

• Anubis: Anubis: the god of embalmers and the god of embalmers and cemeteries (depicted as a jackal)cemeteries (depicted as a jackal)

• Aten: Aten: the god of the solar disk the god of the solar disk (depicted by the disk of the sun)(depicted by the disk of the sun)

• Hapi: Hapi: the god of the Nilethe god of the Nile• Hathor: Hathor: Mother, wife, daughter of RaMother, wife, daughter of Ra

The Principal Gods of Egypt The Principal Gods of Egypt IIII

• Osiris: Osiris: God of the underworld God of the underworld (upper left; depicted with Isis)(upper left; depicted with Isis)

• Set or Seth: Set or Seth: God of storms and God of storms and violence; brother of Osiris who violence; brother of Osiris who murders himmurders him

• Isis: Isis: Wife of Osiris, goddess of Wife of Osiris, goddess of fertilityfertility

• Horus: Horus: Son of Osiris and Isis: God Son of Osiris and Isis: God of the sky.of the sky.

• Horus (with head of falcon) and Horus (with head of falcon) and Seth (head of dog) crown Ramses Seth (head of dog) crown Ramses III (lower left)III (lower left)

Other Gods of EgyptOther Gods of Egypt

• Thoth: Thoth: God of the scribes, Lord of God of the scribes, Lord of Language and inventor of writing.Language and inventor of writing.

• Ptat: Ptat: Creator of humankind; patron of Creator of humankind; patron of the craftspeoplethe craftspeople

• Ma’at: Ma’at: Goddess of truth and the Goddess of truth and the universal order; wife of Thoth]universal order; wife of Thoth]

• She wore an ostrich featherShe wore an ostrich feather• Judges awarded the feather to the Judges awarded the feather to the

winner of a casewinner of a case• Her feather was used on the scales of Her feather was used on the scales of

judgment of the deadjudgment of the dead• Bes: Bes: Helper of women in childbirth; Helper of women in childbirth;

protector against snakes.protector against snakes.

TheocracyTheocracy

• Egypt, as in many civilizations, was Egypt, as in many civilizations, was aa theocracy, theocracy, government by the government by the priestspriests

• Monarchs Monarchs represented the will of represented the will of the Sun Godthe Sun God

• In many conceptions, the In many conceptions, the Pharaoh Pharaoh was was a god; gods’ will flowed a god; gods’ will flowed through himthrough him

• TheThe Sphinx, Sphinx, who guarded the who guarded the entrance to Gizeh’s pyramids, had entrance to Gizeh’s pyramids, had the head of Khafre and the body of the head of Khafre and the body of a liona lion

• They represented the head of a They represented the head of a powerful man and the body of the powerful man and the body of the king of beastsking of beasts

Egyptians: Conceptions of Egyptians: Conceptions of Death and the SoulDeath and the Soul

• Death was the doorway to a new lifeDeath was the doorway to a new life• The body had to be preservedThe body had to be preserved• KaKa: the dead person’s soul that it : the dead person’s soul that it

housed, enabling the body to enjoy life housed, enabling the body to enjoy life in the afterlife as in the earthly lifein the afterlife as in the earthly life

• Upraised arms above head symbolized Upraised arms above head symbolized the the kaka (upper left) (upper left)

• A surrogate could act as substitute for A surrogate could act as substitute for bodybody

• Second aspect: the Second aspect: the akhakh, or spiritual , or spiritual transformation of the deadtransformation of the dead

• Third aspect: the Third aspect: the baba, which entered and , which entered and exited the bodyexited the body

• The The baba was represented by a human- was represented by a human-headed bird (lower left)headed bird (lower left)

Mummification of the Mummification of the BodyBody

• At death, the pharaoh was At death, the pharaoh was prepared for a life of eternity prepared for a life of eternity

• A ten-week embalming A ten-week embalming procedure was followed: see procedure was followed: see pp. 88 for details.pp. 88 for details.

• Here, the jackal-headed Anubis Here, the jackal-headed Anubis prepares the mummy for prepares the mummy for entombmententombment

• He was the god of embalmersHe was the god of embalmers• He was also the guide and the He was also the guide and the

judge of the deadjudge of the dead

Pyramids Pyramids

• Pyramids themselves were Pyramids themselves were constructed only for constructed only for entombment of the entombment of the pharaoh; pharaoh;

• They were not used for They were not used for ritual or any other purpose. ritual or any other purpose.

• See pp. 90-93 for details of See pp. 90-93 for details of a typical pyramid and its a typical pyramid and its structure.structure.

• This diagram shows the This diagram shows the internal structure of the internal structure of the pyramid of Khufu (Cheops)pyramid of Khufu (Cheops)

• The largest pyramid at GizaThe largest pyramid at Giza

Book of the DeadBook of the Dead

• TheThe Tibetan Book of the DeadTibetan Book of the Dead describes the journey of the describes the journey of the soul between one life and the next; judgment based on karmasoul between one life and the next; judgment based on karma

• The The Egyptian Book of the Dead Egyptian Book of the Dead prepares the soul for prepares the soul for judgment. judgment.

• Here, Anubis balances the heart against the feather of Ma’atHere, Anubis balances the heart against the feather of Ma’at• If the heart outweighs the feather, the animal (part crocodile, If the heart outweighs the feather, the animal (part crocodile,

lion, and hippo) to the right will devour the judgedlion, and hippo) to the right will devour the judged• Thoth the scribe records the proceedings. Thoth the scribe records the proceedings.

Egypt: Upper and LowerEgypt: Upper and Lower

• Before 3100 BC, the regions Before 3100 BC, the regions were divided into two parts of were divided into two parts of the Nilethe Nile

• Lower EgyptLower Egypt: the part from : the part from the Nile Delta to Memphis; it the Nile Delta to Memphis; it was lower in the sense that it was lower in the sense that it was the terminus of the Nilewas the terminus of the Nile

• Upper EgyptUpper Egypt: All points along : All points along the river south of Memphis to the river south of Memphis to Nubia, a separate kingdomNubia, a separate kingdom

Unification of EgyptUnification of Egypt

• After the conquest attributed to Menes, After the conquest attributed to Menes, or Narmer (left)or Narmer (left)

• The region was united into one empireThe region was united into one empire

• Narmer was the first pharaoh of a family Narmer was the first pharaoh of a family dynasty of 33 generationsdynasty of 33 generations

• Symbolism: a boxy Red Crown (Lower Symbolism: a boxy Red Crown (Lower Egypt) with a curlicue; Egypt) with a curlicue;

• And a White Crown (Upper Egypt) And a White Crown (Upper Egypt)

• After Narmer’s conquest, he wore a After Narmer’s conquest, he wore a Double Crown to symbolize the Double Crown to symbolize the unification of the two Egypts (lower left)unification of the two Egypts (lower left)

The Symbolism of the UnionThe Symbolism of the Union—And Defeat of Upper —And Defeat of Upper EgyptEgypt• To the right, Narmer (wearing To the right, Narmer (wearing

white crown) subdues a white crown) subdues a captivecaptive

• Hieroglyph at top writes out Hieroglyph at top writes out Narmer’s nameNarmer’s name

• God Horus holds the captive God Horus holds the captive by a featherby a feather

• Papyrus blossoms symbolize Papyrus blossoms symbolize Lower EgyptLower Egypt

• To the left, two long-necked To the left, two long-necked lions are entwined, lions are entwined, suggesting union), with lion suggesting union), with lion tamers on either side.tamers on either side.

• There are the decapitated There are the decapitated warriors in defeatwarriors in defeat

• At the bottom is a bull At the bottom is a bull symbolizing royal powersymbolizing royal power

• For other symbols on this For other symbols on this palette, see p. 85palette, see p. 85

History of Dynastic Egypt: History of Dynastic Egypt: Early PhasesEarly Phases

• Divided into 33 dynasties of each pharaoh Divided into 33 dynasties of each pharaoh including Narmer/Menesincluding Narmer/Menes

• Archaic Period (3100 BC): Consolidation Archaic Period (3100 BC): Consolidation of stateof state

• Old Kingdom (2920-2134): Old Kingdom (2920-2134): • Despotic pharaohs build pyramids and Despotic pharaohs build pyramids and

foster conspicuous funerary monumentsfoster conspicuous funerary monuments• The Sphinx with pyramid in background The Sphinx with pyramid in background

(upper left)(upper left)• Institutions, economic arrangements, and Institutions, economic arrangements, and

artistic traditions establishedartistic traditions established• Subject brings offering to gods (lower left)Subject brings offering to gods (lower left)

Sculptures of the Pharaohs: Sculptures of the Pharaohs: Seated FiguresSeated Figures

• Khafre, son of KhufuKhafre, son of Khufu

• Note formal regal postureNote formal regal posture

• Note fusion of body to throneNote fusion of body to throne

• Note clenched fist of right Note clenched fist of right hand, downward placement hand, downward placement of open left handof open left hand

• Horus, son of Osiris and Isis, Horus, son of Osiris and Isis, is perched in back of the is perched in back of the figurefigure

• Further details: see pp. 95-96Further details: see pp. 95-96

Sculptures of the Pharoahs: Sculptures of the Pharoahs: StanceStance

• This statue of Memkaure and wife This statue of Memkaure and wife Khamerernebty shows the Khamerernebty shows the formalism of Egyptian sculputureformalism of Egyptian sculputure

• Note clenched fists, rigid stance, Note clenched fists, rigid stance, left foot forward, and beard and left foot forward, and beard and headdress of the Pharaohheaddress of the Pharaoh

• Note supportive stance of wife; Note supportive stance of wife; hand around waist and on armhand around waist and on arm

• See box on p. 96 for further See box on p. 96 for further detailsdetails

History of Egypt: First History of Egypt: First Intermediate Period to Middle Intermediate Period to Middle KingdomKingdom

• First Intermediate Period First Intermediate Period (2134-2040): political (2134-2040): political disunitydisunity

• Middle Kingdom (2040-1650 Middle Kingdom (2040-1650 BC)BC)

• Thebes achieves dominanceThebes achieves dominance

• Priesthood of Amun (seen Priesthood of Amun (seen here with Mut, his consort, here with Mut, his consort, and son Khonsand son Khons

• Note profile of face but Note profile of face but frontward orientation of trunkfrontward orientation of trunk

History of Egypt: Later History of Egypt: Later PhasesPhases• Second Intermediate Period Second Intermediate Period

(1640-1530 BC(1640-1530 BC): Hyskos invasion ): Hyskos invasion and occupation of Nile Deltaand occupation of Nile Delta

• New Kingdom (1530-1070 BC):New Kingdom (1530-1070 BC):• Great Imperial PeriodGreat Imperial Period• Pharaohs buried in Valley of KingsPharaohs buried in Valley of Kings• Ramses II, Tutankhamun, Seti IRamses II, Tutankhamun, Seti I• Akhenaten, heretic rulerAkhenaten, heretic ruler

History of Egypt: Terminal History of Egypt: Terminal PeriodsPeriods

• Late Period (1072-332 BC):Late Period (1072-332 BC):

• Gradual decline in pharaonic authorityGradual decline in pharaonic authority

• Persians rule (525-404 BC and 343-332 BC)Persians rule (525-404 BC and 343-332 BC)

• Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC):Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC):

• Alexander the Great Conquers EgyptAlexander the Great Conquers Egypt

• Ptolemy dynasties bring Greek culture to Ptolemy dynasties bring Greek culture to EgyptEgypt

• Roman Occupation (30 BC): Roman Occupation (30 BC): Egypt Egypt becomes imperial province of Romebecomes imperial province of Rome

Archaic Kingdom (3000-2575 Archaic Kingdom (3000-2575 BC)BC)• First known pharaoh: Horus AhaFirst known pharaoh: Horus Aha• Consolidation in which pharaohs assumed role of Consolidation in which pharaohs assumed role of

divine kingsdivine kings• Centralized authority over labor, food storage, and Centralized authority over labor, food storage, and

taxationtaxation• Sponsored spectacular feasts/ritualsSponsored spectacular feasts/rituals• Translated into large-scale, well-designed Translated into large-scale, well-designed

architecture of which the pyramids were examplesarchitecture of which the pyramids were examples• Introduction of hieroglyphic writingIntroduction of hieroglyphic writing• One function: To propagate the pharaonic religion at One function: To propagate the pharaonic religion at

the expense of local cultsthe expense of local cults• Scribes held enormous power, as the few who could Scribes held enormous power, as the few who could

read and writeread and write

Hieroglyphic WritingHieroglyphic Writing

• Definition: Writing system in whichDefinition: Writing system in which• Pictorial symbols are used to Pictorial symbols are used to • Convey particular sound, object, and/or ideaConvey particular sound, object, and/or idea• Original known use: accountingOriginal known use: accounting• Gunter Dreyer found the oldest evidence of Gunter Dreyer found the oldest evidence of

Egyptian writingEgyptian writing• 200 small bone and ivory tags attached to 200 small bone and ivory tags attached to

containers holding linen and oilcontainers holding linen and oil• Attributed to a leader called Scorpion I Attributed to a leader called Scorpion I • Date: 5200 BPDate: 5200 BP• Location: Abydos, 250 miles below CairoLocation: Abydos, 250 miles below Cairo

Hieroglyphic WritingHieroglyphic Writing

• Note that hieroglyphs would stand for a soundNote that hieroglyphs would stand for a sound

• Still relied on pictographic writingStill relied on pictographic writing

Complexity of Hieroglyphic Complexity of Hieroglyphic WritingWriting

• There is some indication that There is some indication that hieroglyphs were more important for hieroglyphs were more important for recording rule and kinshiprecording rule and kinship

• than the were for economic transactionsthan the were for economic transactions• Over time, hieroglyphic writing became Over time, hieroglyphic writing became

more and more complexmore and more complex• Writing was reserved for the scribes, Writing was reserved for the scribes,

ranked third below the pharaoh and ranked third below the pharaoh and priestspriests

Old Kingdom (2575-Old Kingdom (2575-2134)2134)• Further consolidation of empireFurther consolidation of empire• Construction of PyramidsConstruction of Pyramids• Zoser (Djoser): stepped pyramid at SaqqaraZoser (Djoser): stepped pyramid at Saqqara• Khufu (Cheops) of Giza: smooth-sided Khufu (Cheops) of Giza: smooth-sided

pyramid, largest in the worldpyramid, largest in the world• Lesser pyramidsLesser pyramids• Khafre (Chephren)Khafre (Chephren)• Menkaure (Mycerinus)Menkaure (Mycerinus)• Sphinx (likeness of Khafre)Sphinx (likeness of Khafre)• Complex covered 25 miles on the western Complex covered 25 miles on the western

side of the Nileside of the Nile

Pyramids: AnalysisPyramids: Analysis

• Pharaonic institution probably the most Pharaonic institution probably the most successful of cults successful of cults

• Pharaohs were divine, capable of Pharaohs were divine, capable of controlling Nile flood pattern of Nile, rise controlling Nile flood pattern of Nile, rise of sun, and other natural forcesof sun, and other natural forces

• Source of law (no codified law) and top of Source of law (no codified law) and top of a complex bureaucracya complex bureaucracy

• At death, said to dwell in the tomb while At death, said to dwell in the tomb while his double moved on to the other worldhis double moved on to the other world

• Pyramids was the divine house of the Pyramids was the divine house of the rulerruler

• Never meant for any ritual purposeNever meant for any ritual purpose

Pyramids: ConstructionPyramids: Construction

• Function in all locations: to inspire awe among Function in all locations: to inspire awe among populationpopulation

• Constructed during flood seasonConstructed during flood season• Reinforced power by feeding the buildersReinforced power by feeding the builders• Egyptian pyramids were build in one continuous Egyptian pyramids were build in one continuous

process of solid stone blocksprocess of solid stone blocks• Constructed, as in Mesoamerica, in a four-sided Constructed, as in Mesoamerica, in a four-sided

design design • Contained passageways and tombs, including a fake Contained passageways and tombs, including a fake

chamberchamber• Like all pyramids, involvesLike all pyramids, involves• Massive inputs of manpowerMassive inputs of manpower• Sophisticated planning and organizationSophisticated planning and organization

Other PyramidsOther Pyramids

• Most New World pyramids were constructed Most New World pyramids were constructed in stages (as were Near Eastern ziggurats)in stages (as were Near Eastern ziggurats)

• Teotihuacan: Rubble covered with stone Teotihuacan: Rubble covered with stone facadesfacades

• Base was as wide as Khufu’s pyramidBase was as wide as Khufu’s pyramid• Half as highHalf as high• Moche: Adobe bricks, roughly rectangularMoche: Adobe bricks, roughly rectangular• Cahokia: Earthen moundsCahokia: Earthen mounds• Monk’s Mound is largest in North AmericaMonk’s Mound is largest in North America• After Cholula and Pyramid of the SunAfter Cholula and Pyramid of the Sun

First Intermediate Period First Intermediate Period (2134-2040)(2134-2040)

• The Old Kingdom underwent declineThe Old Kingdom underwent decline

• Long drought—probably damaged pharaonic Long drought—probably damaged pharaonic divinity claimsdivinity claims

• High cost of pyramid construction in labor High cost of pyramid construction in labor and resourcesand resources

• Dominance by warring regional kingdomsDominance by warring regional kingdoms

• Provincial powers increasedProvincial powers increased

• Smaller tombs constructed in various Smaller tombs constructed in various localities. localities.

Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 BC)BC)• Thebes of Upper Egypt risesThebes of Upper Egypt rises• PharaohsPharaohs• Made fewer claims to divinityMade fewer claims to divinity• More approachable than past pharaohsMore approachable than past pharaohs• Less despoticLess despotic• Increased efficiencyIncreased efficiency• Expanded irrigation systemsExpanded irrigation systems• Stockpiled granariesStockpiled granaries• Other ChangesOther Changes• Expanded overseas tradeExpanded overseas trade• Secured Egypt’s bordersSecured Egypt’s borders• Effectiveness of leadership still relied on personal Effectiveness of leadership still relied on personal

attributesattributes

Second Intermediate Period Second Intermediate Period (1640-1530 BC)(1640-1530 BC)• Succession disputes eruptedSuccession disputes erupted• Thousands of Asians (Hyksos) invaded Thousands of Asians (Hyksos) invaded

Lower EgyptLower Egypt• Divided again into Upper and Lower EgyptDivided again into Upper and Lower Egypt• Lower Egypt under traditional pharaohsLower Egypt under traditional pharaohs• Upper Egypt under HyksosUpper Egypt under Hyksos• Hyksos introduced new technologyHyksos introduced new technology• BronzeBronze• Horse-drawn chariotsHorse-drawn chariots• New weaponsNew weapons

New Kingdom (1530-1075 New Kingdom (1530-1075 BC) BC)

• Ahmose the Liberator created Ahmose the Liberator created militaristic statemilitaristic state

• Imperial power lay between the Imperial power lay between the Asians to the north and Africans Asians to the north and Africans to the southto the south

• Thebes again capitalThebes again capital

• Amun again worshipped as sun Amun again worshipped as sun godgod

• Temple built at Karnak, west Temple built at Karnak, west bank of Nile (left) bank of Nile (left)

• Valley of Kings arose at that siteValley of Kings arose at that site

Pharaohs After AhmosePharaohs After Ahmose

• New Kingdom after AhmoseNew Kingdom after Ahmose

• Akhenaten: the “heretic” who Akhenaten: the “heretic” who worshipped the sun disk Aten’worshipped the sun disk Aten’

• Aten was the sole god: precedent Aten was the sole god: precedent of monotheismof monotheism

• Tutankhamun: “boy king” who Tutankhamun: “boy king” who lasted 10 years—tomb of “King lasted 10 years—tomb of “King Tut”; advisors restored old orderTut”; advisors restored old order

• Ramses II engaged in military Ramses II engaged in military expansion; lost in Syria to Hittitesexpansion; lost in Syria to Hittites

Late Period (1070 BC-30 BC)Late Period (1070 BC-30 BC)

• A period of political weaknessA period of political weakness

• Attacks from Nubians to south Attacks from Nubians to south (controlled Egypt during 8(controlled Egypt during 8thth Century BC Century BC

• Invasions by Assyrians and PersiansInvasions by Assyrians and Persians

• Alexander the Great takes over Egypt in Alexander the Great takes over Egypt in 332 BC—rule by Ptolemy I and his 332 BC—rule by Ptolemy I and his successorssuccessors

• Roman conquest in 30 BCRoman conquest in 30 BC

Conclusion: Egypt and Conclusion: Egypt and Mesopotamia: Subsistence Mesopotamia: Subsistence BaseBase• Subsistence baseSubsistence base• Both based on irrigationBoth based on irrigation• Both relied on staples such as wheat Both relied on staples such as wheat

and barleyand barley• Egypt had steadier water supply than Egypt had steadier water supply than

MesopotamiaMesopotamia• Tigris and Euphrates were subjected Tigris and Euphrates were subjected

to flood and droughtto flood and drought

Conclusion: Egypt and Conclusion: Egypt and Mesopotamia, Government and Mesopotamia, Government and LawLaw• Mesopotamia:Mesopotamia:

• Priest kings represented the gods; they were Priest kings represented the gods; they were not divine beings themselvesnot divine beings themselves

• Codified Law, solidified by Hammurabi’s timeCodified Law, solidified by Hammurabi’s time

• EgyptEgypt

• Divine PharaohsDivine Pharaohs

• Law derived from PharaohsLaw derived from Pharaohs

• Precedent was based on their personal Precedent was based on their personal decisiondecision

Conclusion: Egypt and Conclusion: Egypt and Mesopotamia, WritingMesopotamia, Writing

• Mesopotamia: Ideographic cuneiformMesopotamia: Ideographic cuneiform

• These consisted of wedgesThese consisted of wedges

• The symbols were not phoneticThe symbols were not phonetic

• Egypt: Pictographic hieroglyphicsEgypt: Pictographic hieroglyphics

• Some of the pictographs represented Some of the pictographs represented consonants and vowels of spoken consonants and vowels of spoken languagelanguage

Conclusion: Architectural Conclusion: Architectural MegastructuresMegastructures

• Near East: Multifunctional zigguratsNear East: Multifunctional ziggurats• Ritual but also administrative centersRitual but also administrative centers• Egypt: Funerary pyramidsEgypt: Funerary pyramids• Sole purpose: to house the pharaohSole purpose: to house the pharaoh