Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
1
EFFECT OF HUMOR ON MOTIVATION IN FOREIGN
LANGUAGE LEARNING
by
Elisa Sileoni
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Arts
in the
English
Program
YOUNGSTOWN STATE UNIVERSITY
May, 2005
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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Acknowledgements
Special thanks go to my thesis committee: I would like to thank Dr. Brown for having
inspired this thesis through his TESOL Methods class. Thank you very much to Dr.
Linkon and Dr. Attardo for agreeing to be part of my thesis committee. I would also like
to thank Dr. Keller, from Florida State University (Tallahassee, FL), who permitted me to
use his models, and the YSU Writing Center for helping edit my thesis.
I would like to thank all of the people who made my stay here in the U.S. easier! Thank
you also to all of my friends (the close ones, and those far away) who generously (and
patiently) supported me throughout all of these years! Particular special thanks go to both
my Italian and American families for having helped me in all the ways a person can be
helped. However, I would like to principally dedicate most of these efforts to my older
sister Cinzia (who never managed to get this far, thank you dear sister! I do not think I
would be here if you had not taught me so much! I love you so!)
Thank you all of you, from the bottom of my heart!
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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ABSTRACT
This thesis focuses on motivation in Foreign Language Learning (FLL) and humor’s
positive effects. Initially, motivation is introduced and defined. Motivation drives human
behavior within a classroom. It is then applied in an L2 setting. Many variables affect
motivation; individual differences also play a very determinant role. Moreover,
motivation tends to decrease throughout time. Therefore, it is necessary to sustain it
throughout FLL. Research shows it can be enhanced through positive stimuli. We attempt
to verify this hypothesis by using humor. Humor is defined in chapter 2. Additionally,
theories of humor and its development in children are illustrated. This introduces an issue
involving humor: the problem of whether or not we should bring it into any FLL setting.
Humor can easily be produced, but its understanding is more problematic. If
appropriately presented, humor brings about benefits in hospitals and other work places.
This writer suggests using instructional humor, defined as relevant humor, in the
language classroom environment. It should ease learning and sustain L2 motivation.
However, empirical research has failed to confirm this hypothesis.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ………..…………………………………………………………….......... 1
1. Motivation …………....……………………………………………………………. 3
1.1 Introducing Motivation ………….……………………………………………....... 3
1.2 What Is Motivation? ……………..…………………………………...................... 4
1.3 The Definitions ………….…...…………………………………….…………...… 6
1.3.1 Attitudes vs. Orientations vs. Motivation and Achievement ...……………….. 8
1.4 The Theories ……………………..…...................................................................... 11
1.4.1 The Machine and the God-Like Metaphors ..………………………..………... 11
1.5 On L2 Motivation ………………………………………........................................ 14
1.5.1 Definitions of L2 Motivation ……………………………………...………….. 14
1.5.2 The old vs. the New Models of L2 Motivational Theories ..…...…..………… 15
1.5.3 Nine Traits as Foreignness’ Determinants ………..…………………………... 16
1.5.4 Worthy Reasons for Learning a Foreign Language in the U.S.A. …….……… 19
1.5.5 Individual Differences and Time ………………………………….………….. 20
1.6 Accepting the Goal and the Challenge: A Step Forward into L2 Motivation …… 22
1.6.1 The FLL Reality: Too Confusing ……………...…………………………….. 22
1.6.2 The Process-Oriented Model: Avoiding If Instances …………...…………… 24
1.6.3 Maintaining Motivation ………...……………………………………………. 25
1.7 The Neurology of Motivation ………...………………………………………….. 28
1.7.1 We Love Dopamine! ……………….……………………………………… 28
Conclusion ………………………...…………………………………………………. 30
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2. Humor …......………………………………………...………..................................... 32
2.1 The Definitions ……………………………………...……………………………. 32
2.2 What Is so Funny about It? The Theories ……………………………………........ 34
2.2.1 The Incongruous ………………………………...……………………………. 37
2.2.2 The Script-Based Semantic Theory ……………...…………………………… 39
2.3 Children’s Humor ……………………………...……………………..................... 40
2.3.1 Children as Cognitive Thinkers ………………………………………...…….. 41
2.3.2 Infants’ Smiles ……………………………………………………...………… 42
2.3.3 The Triggers Responsible for Cognition ………..………………………......... 43
2.3.4 Stage 1, 2 and 3 ……………………………………………………………….. 44
2.4 Understanding a Joke in a Foreign Language ……………….…………................ 45
2.4.1 The Issues Involved with Humor in Foreign Language Learning ……………. 45
2.4.1.1 Scripts Availability: the Keys Determinant for National Styles of
Humor …………………………………………………………………………...
46
2.4.1.2 The Debate between Deneire and Schmitz ............…………………….. 48
2.4.2 Humor in Second Language Learning: From Hypothesis to Reality …...……. 52
2.5 I did not Get It: My Right-Hemisphere Must Not Be Functioning Today………… 53
Conclusion …………………………………...……………………………………….. 58
3. Humor in the Classroom .……..……………………………………...…….............. 60
3.1 Advancing the Hypothesis …………………………………………..................…. 60
3.2 Risus Abundat In Ore Stultorum – Going Against the Old Bore …...……...…...... 61
3.3 Success of Humor in Hospitals and in Work Places …………………...…............ 65
3.3.1 Humor as Medicine of the Body …………….……………………………… 65
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3.3.2 Humor as Medicine of the Mind: No more Now Get Back to Work! Threats… 68
3.4 The Usefulness of Instructional Humor …………...……….………….….………. 72
3.4.1 A Quick Sketch of Humor’s Benefits in Education ……………….……..…... 74
3.5 Humor in the Foreign Language Classroom: The Benefits ...…………………….. 75
Conclusion ………...……………………………………………….…………………. 81
4. Presenting the Experiment ……………………….……………...………................ 83
4.1 The Hypothesis ………………...…………………………..................................... 83
4.2 Method …………...…...……………………………............................................... 83
4.2.1 Subjects ………………...……………………………………………………... 83
4.2.2 Design: Keller’s Model ......……………...…………………………………… 84
4.2.3 Materials ………...……...…………………………………………………….. 86
4.2.4 Procedure ……...……...……………………………………………………..... 95
4.2.5 Results ……………...………………………………………………………… 95
4.2.6 Discussion …...………...……………………………………………………… 97
Conclusion ………...…………………………………………….................................... 99
References ………..……………………………………………..…................................ 102
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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Introduction
As a first year foreign language teacher I asked myself, how can American students doze
off for the whole class period (they are physically there, but their eyes tell you their
minds are somewhere else)? Why do they skip class? Why do they get bored so easily?
What strategies should teachers employ to stimulate and maintain a student’s decent
motivational state? I am quite sure teachers wish to have the magic answers to all of these
questions, yet they do not do anything to spur the interest of their students toward the
subject matter. Teachers may be very competent with the topic they teach, yet may not
know how to make it interesting. Often, they worry too much about making sure they are
on time with the curriculum. As Gardner (1985) suggests, “what would happen if love of
learning […] became a priority in schools,” (17) rather then the curriculum? That is, what
if teachers tried to do away with such madness and teach their subject matter, a foreign
language in this case, with passion and enthusiasm? What if teachers became entertainers,
using humor as a strategy to spur and sustain students’ motivation?
This writer proposes what follows: use humor not as a teaching technique,1 but
rather as the spice to add and employ in the foreign language classroom to peak students’
interest and keep them motivated. Once motivated, students would engage in the proper
(motivated) behavior apt to reach their ultimate goals, namely passing the foreign
language course. Motivation is considered to be the key in terms of language learning
because it drives behaviors. In other words, motivation is the kick, which stimulates the
accomplishment of our actions. A motivated individual is a person who shows a certain
degree of interest toward a subject.
1 It is important to notice that the humor strategy could work for some students, yet not for others.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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The success of motivation in terms of foreign language learning can be abstractly
predicted, but when it is involved at a more concrete level (the actual classroom
environment) then motivation might be harder to achieve because it is not the only
variable influencing the human mind. Attitudes (i.e., interests), orientations (i.e., reasons)
and the environment also play a good role in determining people's behaviors. For this
reason, we keep any postulations at a more abstract level, so as not to neglect the
existence and the influence of other variables, as we will see at a later time.
In order to accomplish such a demanding task, this writer will start her
exploration by giving an overview of general motivation (in order to understand its basic
functions) which will be broadened to the second language (L2) field (in chapter 1). We
will then turn to humor research (chapter 2), exploring some of its issues and its likely
positive benefits (chapter 3) also in relation to foreign language learning. An experiment
will accompany this research (chapter 4) so as to validate the assumption advanced by
this author, which will furnish the data necessary to conclude the analysis.
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1. Motivation
1.1 Introducing Motivation
Nowadays, being monolingual might be a comparative disadvantage as the number of
people who speak at least two languages is on the rise. Languages’ usefulness has been
recognized in several contexts, for instance, business and hospitals.
As Hakuta (1986) suggests humorously, “a Martian [landing] at a random location on
earth would conclude, after observing the linguistic environment, that the inhabitants are
bilingual.” (6) Knowing that there are no Martians available to us (at least not right now),
then, Dornyei’s (1994a) statement will do: “The vast majority of nations in the world are
multicultural, and most of these are multilingual, and […] there are more bilinguals in the
world than there are monolinguals.” (274) When we speak of bilingualism, we tend to
refer to people who actually acquired a first language (L1) at a young age, and learned a
second language (L2) later on in life – often in a classroom setting. In this regard, the
majority of individuals in America usually experience the difficulty of taking at least one
foreign language course to fulfill their college major’s general requirements. Most of the
time, they perceive a certain degree of difficulty in the learning since, as Gardner (1985)
suggests, “North Americans are often considered to be poor learners of second languages
largely […] because [they believe that] there is little need for learning another language.”
(3) Even this pre-service immigrant teacher, without much experience in teaching a
foreign language, noticed that Americans do have a hard time learning an L2 in school,
regardless of America’s incredibly rich bilingual environment. Thus, one tends to
attribute their lack of success, rather than ability, to the fact that, “modern languages are
not rated highly for their usefulness and are seen as among the least enjoyable subjects by
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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many pupils.” (Stables & Wikeley, 1999: 23) Americans’ general lack of motivation
tends to engender a likely failure of the course in some extreme cases. Then, as Gardner
& Lambert (1972) suggest, the following question comes to us spontaneously: “How is it
that some people can learn a language quickly and expertly while others, given the same
opportunities to learn, are utter failures?” (1) For instance, what makes an American
foreign language (FL) learner differ from any other second language (SL) learner is the
context in which learning happens, and which creates different motivational states. In the
former, motivation is inferior, while in the latter, the motivational trend is very high. This
happens because, for instance, an Italian student learning English immersed in the L2
community is forced to speak L2 in order to survive (e.g., call 911 for an emergency). On
the contrary, a foreign language student (e.g., an American learning Italian) finds barely
any chances to enter in contact with the L2 community. Thus, their motivation to learn a
foreign language is typically low. Teachers do accept this as a plausible excuse, but they
refuse to accept students’ general nonchalance toward the subject matter.
1.2 What Is Motivation?
Generally speaking, we say that people could be more or less motivated in doing
something. This something - reaching a goal - includes all kind of things: a desire to gain
extra money or simply the desire for freedom. (Dornyei, 2001a: 1) All goals are meant to
shape behavior. In fact, motivation is believed to be concerned with three fundamental
characteristics: “[it] explains why people decide to do something, how hard they are
going to pursue it and how long they are willing to sustain the activity” (7) in order to
succeed with the goal. In other words, motivation illustrates people’s enthusiasm, their
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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commitment and their persistence in the goal’s accomplishment. Thus, these same
features will determine students’ success or failure (Dornyei, 2001a: 5).
Even if motivation generally refers to people’s own reasons for doing something,
Nicholls & Thorkildsen (1995) suggest that “motivation in education has tended to be the
specialty of psychologists with a penchant for abstract theory and technical approaches to
change.” (1) In large part, motivation has been studied in the psychological field so as to
indicate the causes of changing behaviors. Such studies would be very profitable in terms
of L2 learning because teachers could actually use the data available to better understand
and ultimately enhance students’ motivation. Thus, behaviors are part of that process of
conation, which is in fact directed toward an alteration and a consequent attunement of
the behavior itself, involving a strong desire, a conscious choice, and nonetheless effort.
Effort does indicate that the individual has recognized the goal’s worthyness.
Motivation has been analyzed according to different aspects. According to
Dornyei (2001a), beyond the meaning of motivation spoken of “in casual conversation.”
(1) We can look at it more formally as the force that drives “human behavior.” (ibid) For
instance, one individual would openly express his/her desire (that conative aspect
mentioned above) to lose some weight, (e.g., I am really motivated in loosing some
weight). Thus, this individual would engage in the proper behavior that would lead
him/her to accomplish such a goal. On the other hand, a researcher would explain that
humans tend to act the way they do because of specific causes, as we will see.
While students hardly recognize the existence of such a term, motivation
represents for us teachers, and for researchers of the past decades as well, the key term of
the learning process, the process through which experience modifies pre-existing
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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behavior and understanding. Thus, motivation becomes the central focus of both “fields
of psychology and education” (Dornyei, 2001a: 2) utilizing, again, psychological insights
to explain the more complex educational ones.
Motivation is better observed than explained, just “like the concept of gravity.”
(7) We do understand what gravity can do to a falling object, but when it comes to be
explained, unless one is a scientist, it becomes a hard thing to accomplish. So, as Weiner
(1992) suggests, in order to understand motivation and in order to apply it in an L2
context, we will have to move very slowly:
I [should] slowly present the building blocks of [motivation], and finally present the
overall conception. The reader therefore must exhibit patience and accept being led by
small steps, without immediately looking for the [conclusive] significance of the issue
under consideration (159).
We will first define general motivation and we will illustrate its early theories later.
1.3 The Definitions
Several definitions have been given to the term of motivation. For this reason, this author
will use the most pertinent for this thesis’s purpose. Using simple words, motivation
corresponds to the ways to convince students they can or should do what someone else
has already declared important. That someone else is the school board, college or
university that requires foreign language study, neglecting the student’s opportunity to
choose.
Technically speaking, Webster’s Dictionary (1971) defines motivation as “the act
or process of motivating [or] a motivating force or influence [or] the condition of being
motivated.” (1475) A very general and broad definition attributed to motivation was
given by Oxford & Shearin (1994), who define motivation as “the power to attain the
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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goal which is reflected in the motivational orientation.” (Oxford & Shearin, 1994: 14)
Weiner (1992) defines it as the reason(s) “why human and subhuman organisms think
and behave as they do.” (1) Dornyei (2001a) defines it as “an abstract, hypothetical
concept that we use to explain why people think and behave as they do” (1) while Brown
(1994) defines it as “the extent to which you make a choice about (1) goals to pursue, and
(2) the effort you will devote to that pursuit.” (34) Generally speaking, motivation should
give us the reason why people engage in certain behaviors or - in other words -
motivation ought to lead individuals to engage in certain behaviors with the purpose of
reaching a certain goal (e.g., work extra hours [action behavior] to gain extra money
[final goal] = motivation). In other words, uniting all these definitions, we would obtain a
unique concept which sees motivation as that abstract stimulating force/cause that makes
an individual do something he/she is wishing to accomplish.
More technically speaking, Keller (1987) refers to motivation in terms of attention
(A), relevance (R), confidence (C) and satisfaction (S) creating the model known as
ARCS model (2).
To better understand the term motivation, we refer to the metaphor brought to our
attention by Nicholls & Thorkildsen (1995) which saw motivation as a football team.
The coach of a football team tries really hard to teach his players how to “get the ball into
the end zone.” (1) In order to score, the players could enter the end zone toward the left
or toward the right. Then, at this point, which one should they favor? In other words,
what strategies should the teacher be using in order to get their students to work and
learn? Let’s keep in mind that there is not a universal teaching technique that can be
employed in each classroom. Rather, there are several strategies that can be applied in a
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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classroom in order to match a student’s exigencies.
1.3.1 Attitudes vs. Orientations vs. Motivation and Achievement
Most of the time, the term motivation is confused with the terms attitudes and orientation
and is less frequently associated with the term of achievement.
According to Webster’s Dictionary (1971), attitude represents that “disposition”
(141) which expresses a certain “opinion rather than belief.” (ibid) For instance, she
thinks portabella mushrooms taste bad; she is unlikely to buy portabella mushrooms at
the grocery store. According to Allport (1954), attitude is defined as “a mental and neural
state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a direct or dynamic influence
upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.” (45)
In other words, what an individual thinks about something/someone will affect the
individual behavioral outputs. It is very hard to give a precise definition of attitudes since
it has been argued by some researchers that attitudes change according to individual
differences (e.g., ethnicity). Furthermore, according to Gardner (1985), “attitudes are
related to behavior, though not necessarily directly.” (9) Important as that is, even though
we can predict behavior, individual differences in attitudes – discrepant from person to
person - lead us to think that these predictions may not always match the general
hypothesis. Thus, “some attitudes might be more relevant than others.” (ibid) That is, in
terms of language contact, if an individual shows a positive attitude toward the Italian
language for instance, (e.g., I think it is useful studying Italian), and a dislike for the
German language, then he/she will show interest toward the Italian community and
whatever is related to it. On the contrary, this individual ends up learning German
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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because his/her job requires the knowledge of German language, rather than Italian. This
greatly explains why attitudes do not necessarily arouse motivation (Williams & Burden,
1997).
Orientations, on the other hand, do arouse motivation. This is how orientations
differ from attitude, where the former is defined by Webster’s Dictionary (1971) as the
“awareness of a [general] existing situation” (1591) (e.g., the market asks for knowledge
of the German language), while the former is conceived as a disposition. However, we
cannot confuse orientations with motivation since the latter expresses the inclusion of a
goal (e.g., learning a foreign/second language), which would represent one’s will. On the
other hand, orientations are the “reasons for” (116) doing something (i.e., learning a
foreign/second language because of its usefulness in the market or simply at work).
Then, the question to ask is: Why does an individual want to have a goal? What is
individual’s orientation?
The term motivation in pedagogy is seen as the combination of the time an
individual employs in accomplishing what he/she truly desires, showing very positive
predispositions. A better definition of motivation (related to both general motivation and
L2 motivation) sees included three items which ought to work in concert: desire, effort,
and positive attitudes. This statement has also been similarly supported by Weiner
(1992), who maintains that motivation includes “latency of behavior [how long it will
take to a person to start acting]; intensity of behavior [and] persistence of behavior.” (2)
If an individual has positive attitudes and desire, but does not put any effort in order to
accomplish and satisfy his/her goal, then we cannot really talk of a motivated individual.
Gardner (1985) brings to our attention that “many of us want to be millionaires, but if this
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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desire is not associated with a concomitant effort – or drive to achieve the goal we are not
really motivated to become millionaires.” (Gardner, 1985: 11) This statement further
supports the idea according to which motivation ought to represent the grouping of
manifold variables which are dependent from one another (e.g., one cannot put forth
effort if there is no desire). Many variables seem to be affecting the trend of the
individual’s motivation and each variable could act more or less powerfully on a behavior
(e.g., individual X’s desire to learn a language could be stronger than individual Y’s even
though it will be individual Y who will end up learning a foreign language because of
his/her specific orientations).
Achievement is, to conclude these series of definitions, the successful focus of the
goal that is being accomplished (e.g., a foreign language is learned) or, according to
Webster’s dictionary definition (1971), achievement is “successful completion:
accomplishment, fulfillment” (16) of a goal because of “exertion, skill, practice, or
perseverance” (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language). Thus,
achievement is one of the building blocks of motivation. For instance, in terms of L2
learning, Gardner (1985) conceives as goals, “vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation […]
speaking, understanding, reading [or/and] writing.” (12) Such goals can be successfully
accomplished because an individual shows not only a strong desire to accomplish
fruitfully the learning, but also invests time and effort. Thus, successful goal achievement
happens if attitudes include specific and relevant reasons for accomplishing a goal. Thus,
achievement reflects fully motivated behaviors.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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1.4 The Theories
Motivational psychologists, basing their knowledge on older formulations, found their
own way of approaching behavior and consequently motivation. In this way, all the
theories are similar, for they tend to develop discussions around the same topic – explain
why people behave the way they do. At the same time, they differ in the way in which
they attempt to find common causes which would lead clustering certain features – rather
than others with a group. These theories (i.e., social, cognitive, behavioral and so forth)
do explicate the causes of behavior and consequently of motivation, but they accomplish
this by following their own views and analyses without taking into consideration the
development undertaken by the other theorists and their theories (Dornyei, 2001a). This
caused the birth of countless additional speculations on the matter which explicate the
developing of certain human behaviors in specific contexts, but not in others. Listing
them would mean occupying extra pages of this thesis whose main focus is to study
foreign language students’ motivation, rather than to furnish a complete literature review
on motivation - whose fundamental influence on L2 contexts certainly cannot be denied.
Luckily, two metaphors attempted to fully present the general idea of human
motivation theories: the machine and the God-like metaphors.
1.4.1 The Machine and the God-Like Metaphors
A more fascinating illustration of the theories on general motivation is attributed to
Weiner’s research (1992), which exemplifies general motivation theories through the
employment of the machine and the God-like metaphors. These metaphors successfully
attempted to orderly group the theories on motivation, together with their main
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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exponents, as shown in Table 1 and 2 as follows:
Table 1
The Machine metaphor
1. Psychoanalytic (Freud)
2. Ethology (Loren, Tinbergen)
3. Sociobiology (Wilson)
4. Drive (Woodworth, Hull)
5. Gestalt (Wertheimer)
Table 2
The God-like metaphor
1. Expectancy-value (Rotter, Lewin, Atkinson)
2. Attribution (Heider)
The machine-like metaphor, which prevailed all throughout the first half of the
twentieth century, sees human beings, as Leonardo Da Vinci maintained, as “marvelously
constructed machine[s]” (Leonardo Da Vinci, found in Weiner, 1992: 19) in the way in
which they behave, or function, in order to reach an innate goal (i.e., eat). This will lead
human beings to reach his homeostatic equilibrium - responsible for people’s hedonistic
pleasure. In other words, people behave in order to satisfy their drives - which differ from
Freud’s more unconscious instincts. However, as Weiner (1992) points out, a man and
“other aspects of human behavior must be examined with other metaphors” (151) in order
to have a complete picture of why human beings behave the way they do. That is, this
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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metaphor explaines human behavior by covering one area only. Thus, it seems necessary
to implement other views in other to complete our general picture on the history of
general motivation.
The God-like metaphor brought the machine-like metaphor to its decline because
it saw the man as a machine only. In fact, humans are not machines - but they do attain
hedonistically a goal in order to achieve the highest pleasure. They do this not because of
innate instincts, but rather because humans possess higher thinking abilities and make
choices consciously. It is in this perspective that the expectancy-value theories assumed
relevancy – for this thesis’s purpose – since they generally indicated that “the pleasure or
some other more specific positive affect […] is [consciously] experienced when goals are
attained.” (Weiner, 1992: 221) However, certain goals cannot be attained at all times
because of one individual’s own attitude toward a specific matter. This is why one ought
to: 1) transform attitudes into motivations (the latter including a goal) by 2) inserting a
positive incentive as reinforcement (i.e., positive stimulus) that ought to 3) incite a
specific action (i.e., behavior) 4) apt to attain the goal’s accomplishment (e.g., learning).
We should bring to attention the fact according to which the stimulus tends to generally
be perceived as positive since “organisms seek to maximize pleasurable stimulation and
to minimize painful experience.” (ibid) More in particular, humans purposely choose to
experience pleasure over pain because of its positive benefits brought to the mind and to
the body, thus stimulating the accomplishment of a goal.
Unfortunately, stimuli are not valued as positive all the time, since, as Weiner
(1992) suggests, “persons differ from each other in their construction of events.” (226)
That is, “individuals perceive the same objective stimulus situation in a different manner”
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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(Weiner, 1992: 226) and as a consequence their behaviors will also differ. Each person is
unique. Humans are scientists by being able to perceive stimuli from the world and give
these stimuli their own interpretation by giving them “meaning.” (228) (i.e., value) In
other words, humans would attribute a value to the stimulus which, again, tends to be
perceived generally hedonistically.
In conclusion, both metaphors seemed to have helped to understand basic general
motivation, even though particular emphasis was put on human beings’ appraisals, and
their hedonistc purpose. This represented the key determinant for general motivation
which foreshadowed our main focus: the L2 motivational field.
1.5 On L2 Motivation
Now that a literature review has been given on general motivation, constituting the base
we are going to take off from, it is now finally possible to enter the field of motivation
concerned with foreign language learning. Let’s keep in mind that most of the models
that are about to be presented (Dornyei, 1994a, 2001a, 2001b) are the result of several
studies in the field which, on the other hand, demand validation, the main concern of
Gardner & Tremblay (1994).
1.5.1 Definitions of L2 Motivation
Several definitions have been advanced in the L2 motivation field. They attempt to
explain, using down-to-Earth terms, the causes that make an individual engage in L2
learning, rather than having the individual ask questions like, Why should I study this?
According to Gardner (1985), L2 motivation can be understood as the “amount of
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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effort the individual expands in order to learn the second language.” (Gardner, 1985: 53)
Socially-educationally speaking, it can be understood as the “effort, want (desire), and
affect associated with learning a second language” (147) or more precisely, as Garnder &
Trembley (1994) suggest, the “desire, intensity and attitudes” (526) toward L2. Oxford &
Shearin (1994) refer to it as “the extent of active, personal involvement of second
language learning.” (12)
1.5.2 The Old vs. the New Models of L2 Motivational Theories
Between the years 1960 and 1990, all the theories of general motivation were gathered
and applied in the L2 setting through a socio-educational model. According to Gardner
(1985), the model focused on “the idea that languages are unlike any other subject taught
in a classroom in that they involve the acquisition of skills or behavior patterns which are
characteristic of another cultural community.” (146) Languages require the learning of
certain grammar rules and certain aspects of language which are culture-based, specific
of a culture that is. In fact, according to Gardner (1985), the accomplishment of L2
learning would be deeply affected by “the individual’s attitudes toward the other
community [and its] beliefs.” (146) If an individual does not accept the values and even
the language that belong to the other community, more than certainly this individual
would be better off learning another language (if not abandoning the L2 field). On the
other hand, if the L2 learner manages to accept the L2 culture, and whatever is involved
with it, then this individual is more moved in learning a foreign language because of
either an integrative motivation or an instrumental motivation.
Gardner & Lambert (1972) introduce the influential terms of integrative
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
22
motivation (i.e., learning a language because one simply likes it) and instrumental
motivation (i.e., “getting ahead in one’s occupation” Gardner & Lambert, 1972: 3). These
terms were the result of an experiment undergone at the universities of McGill and of
Western Ontario (Canada). This experiment gave empirical proof to the theory they
elaborated according to which “[learners’] motivation to learn is thought to be determined
by [the learners’] attitudes toward the other group in particular and toward the foreign
people in general and by [the learners’] orientation toward the learning task itself” (ibid)
which can be in fact instrumental or integrative.
Gardner’s socio-educational model creates the base of L2 motivation. However,
Oxford (1994) and other researchers conceived this model as being too influencial
because too “overwhelming” (512) or exhausting. In other words, they thought that the
model impeded the flowering of any other theories on L2 motivation.
Dornyei (2001a) introduces a newer approach according to which L2 motivation
is based on three elements: 1) “the language level” – which involves integrative and
instrumental motivation (Gardner et al., 2004: 3); 2) “the learner level” – which involves
“self-confidence” and “need for achievement” (ibid), i.e., students’ traits, and 3) “the
learning situation level” – which relates to the characteristics of the course and of the
teacher. (Dornyei, 2001a: 19) This model is largely - but constructively - criticized by
Gardner & Tremblay (1994) who see a preoccupying lack of “construct validation” (366).
1.5.3 Nine Traits as Foreignness’ Determinants
From this moment on, we will mainly tend to refer to the term foreign language learning
(FLL), rather than L2 learning, with the purpose of: 1) maintaining the distinction
between foreign and second language learning neatly separated, and 2) reminding the
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
23
reader of one of the main foci of this thesis.
Adult foreign language is foreign according to Bley-Vroman (1989) simply
because of nine traits:2
1) Lack of success – there is in fact a chance which keeps a learner from learning
a second language especially if foreign (even though everyone always learns a
first language successfully). “Not everyone with an opportunity to learn chess will
become a world-class chess player […].” (44) Thus, similarly, not everyone
exposed to a second language will become fluent in L2 whose mastery seems to
be exclusively dependent upon “human cognitive learning capacities.” (ibid)
Language learning is a very conscious process and even if much effort is
employed in the learning, an individual still has chances to fail. In fact, success is
more unlikely to occur.
2) General failure – is the most common and consequent phenomenon occurring
in foreign language learning. Success, or mastery, is very rare (chances for this to
happen amount to about 5%!). When it does actually happen, it often tends not to
be attributed to successful foreign language learning, but rather to language
acquisition (ibid).
3) Variation in success, course, and strategy – again success is not guaranteed,
thus, the achievement of the course may vary as well, as much as the strategies
used by the learners. According to Chambers (1999), learners “find themselves in
the strange position of learning a new terminology for items which they can
describe perfectly well in the mother tongue” (Chambers, 1999: 8).
2 Note that the eighth one, originally postulated by Bley-Vroman (1999), was substituted by foreign
language instrumentality, hypothesized by this writer. The latter was in fact thought to be more relevant to
this thesis’s purpose.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
24
4) Variation in goals - different individuals have different goals in terms of
language learning. Some may focus more on “grammatical correctness” (Bley-
Vroman, 1989: 46), others on phonology and so forth. Most of them “are
generally long term” ones, (Chambers, 1999: 9) for instance, integrative ones,
namely the exchange with a student from the foreign language country.
5) Fossilization (the term was coined by Selinker, 1972 found in Bley-Vroman,
1999) – learning stabilizes at a certain point in time without showing considerable
growth. “Fossilized learners are the despair of language teachers: Nothing seems
to have an effect.” (Bley-Vroman, 1999: 47) For instance, English fossilized
learners will still make the same mistake over and over again, e.g., she goed. On
the contrary, acquisition does not stop, but within this frame, language remains
rather plastic, or elastic, until acquisition is successfully reached. Thus, she goed
is corrected and changed into she went.
6) Indeterminate intuitions – i.e., “the performance may be incomplete.” (ibid)
That is, learners might possess specific knowledge on a variety of rules or
“strategies” (ibid) employed to satisfy “communicative goals” (ibid) (e.g., call the
plumber). Thus, their performance will never equalize the just right native
speakers’ one because of the lack of indeterminate judgments (e.g., grammatical
judgments).
7) Importance of instruction – “instruction matters in foreign language learning.”
(ibid) The learner’s proficiency depends also on how good and organized
instruction is and how useful the tasks are. If “the learner […] does not participate
in the activities [proposed he/she] does not learn.” (Chambers, 1999: 8) The
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
25
learner needs in fact to participate and practice the language in order to learn it.
Such practice is accomplished through specific tasks which involve “training,
automatising, habitualising, consolidating” and so forth. (Chambers, 1999: 8)
These elements - of course - are not relevant in acquisition (e.g., a child who is
acquiring a language does not need to repeat to himself/herself that the is the
English definite article which precedes a noun). Additionally, instruction in
foreign language learning does not follow a “linear progression” (ibid), but it is
more “cyclic or spiral.” (ibid) For instance, if the textbook presents the present
tense of the essere (to be) verb in section A, it does not mean that section B will
illustrate the present tense of the avere verb (to have), so as not to confuse the
students with similar items.
8) Foreign language instrumentality – foreign language learners are more
instrumentally driven rather than integratively,3 thus an exchange program, as
already mentioned, might not arouse any particular interest.
9) Role of affective factors – “personality, socialization, motivation, attitude”
(Bley-Vroman, 1989: 49) seem to have an effect on foreign language learning.
They are actually considered to be “essential” to it, but on the other hand they are
hard to measure! (ibid)
1.5.4 Worthy Reasons for Learning a Foreign Language in the U.S.A.
Not all Americans believe in the worthlessness of learning a foreign language. On the
contrary, the American Council of the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) declared
3 At least in higher education programs, while this does not happen for school children whose
instrumentality is the same as grades and praise, as described in Dornyei (1994b).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
26
the year 2005 as the year of foreign languages, illustrating on the internet, at the page
http://www.actfl.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3782, the resolution proposed by Dodd and
officially approved by the Senate. According to this resolution, knowing a foreign
language would constitute a very useful tool to employ in several working fields.
Additionally, the resolution includes some good orientations that teachers could make
students aware of together with spurring their interest toward FLL.
1.5.5 Individual Differences and Time
Motivation is organic and very dynamic - rather than static - for two reasons: 1) because
of individual differences (Philips, 1970; Schumann et al. 2004), and 2) because of time
(Dornyei, 2001a).
Philips (1970) faces the issues of individual differences in terms of ethnicity. The
research reported by Philips (1970) brings to our attention the example of how Indian
students: 1) lacked motivation, 2) refused the authority figure of the teacher,4 and 3)
indirectly asked for different learning strategies to be applied. The Indian students were
shown to possess different beliefs from the average Americans. Indian students cannot be
motivated in accomplishing certain tasks if it is the teacher who is asking them to, while
group-work was successfully accomplished. The cause lays in their background
especially. However, this also happens because of the parental influence which
determines the attitude they assume in front of the learning situation (302-17).
On the other hand, Schumann et al. (2004) speak of “neurological differences”
(2), with reference to Gardner’s multiple intelligences, rather than individual differences.
4 In this regard, games would play a good role in accepting the authority figures (e.g., the teacher). See
Cook (2000) and Clark (1970) for further details on this matter.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
27
For Schumann et al. (2004), the world is incredibly heterogeneous because of persons’
different brain structures. There are people who have red hair and people who have
brown hair. There are people who like reading and there are people who like singing.
There are people who like studying math and there are people who like studying a foreign
language. There are people who learn proficiently a foreign language and there are people
who learn one poorly. Individual differences would be based on these differences and on
humans’ hypertrophy, that is, an individual’s particular ability, or intelligence, shown on
a particular field. Not all individuals are linguistically skilled; this means that an
individual could be more proficient in imitating sounds, but not in translating words. An
individual could excel in math, yet, not in a language. “[…] Brains vary just as faces do,
and the environment selects on brains just as it does on faces.” (ibid) Thus, an individual
generally reacts differently to a stimulus with respect to another. Keeping in mind the
hedonistic value we discussed earlier, individuals generally tend to perceive stimuli in a
positive way. However, let’s keep in mind that we are all different, thus, a stimulus could
be evaluated as positive by an individual, but negatively by another.
Individual differences, as we have seen, play a fundamental role in students’ L2
motivation and especially in the American foreign language classroom. Obviously, we
cannot focus on individual differences since this would mean studying and analyzing
each singular student and developing a theory for each one of them. This would be a hard
practice to engage in. What we can do and we are actually doing is focusing on one
aspect, namely analyze motivation in terms of ARCS.
While learning, L2 motivation is not always at the same level, but it varies all
throughout the period of time in which the subject is engaged in the learning. Time
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
28
determines the shift that Dornyei, (2001a) identifies with the term maintaining (71).
Motivation changes over time5 and is more or less involved with the interests of an
individual according to his/her “hierarchy of needs.” (Maslow, 1970 quoted in Dornyei,
2001a: 8) If the learner does not see the learning of the foreign language occupying a
high relevance in his/her hierarchy of needs, motivation is not maintained, and “the
natural tendency to loose sight of the goal, to get tired or bored of the activity and to give
way to attractive distractions or competing action tendencies will result in the initial
motivation gradually petering out.” (Dornyei, 2001b: 127) In other words, foreign
language learning should represent for a student a very important goal to be
accomplished and should deserve very much attention.
1.6. Accepting the Goal and the Challenge: A Step Forward into L2 Motivation
We are now finally ready to provide some useful insights concerned with motivation in
the foreign language classroom.
1.6.1. The FLL Reality: Too Confusing
At the time the student walks in the classroom, he/she is equipped with just enough
curiosity to come in, sit down and listen to the foreign words the teacher is speaking. At
the time they hear what is expected throughout the course, their anxiety trend tends to
increase. For instance, every year’s syllabus for Elementary Italian (IT 1500) and
5 Gardner et al. (2004) empirically supported the idea according to which what is changing is not
motivation, but rather the effort (understood as motivational intensity) employed throughout a course. Such
statement would contrast what his colleagues and he proposed supporting in fact the notion that if intensity,
or desire or attitude [then effort] come to miss, we see an individual not being fully motivated (Gardner et
al., 2004: 4).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
29
Intermediate Italian (IT 2600), at Youngstown State University (YSU) provides a great
amount of information related to the objectives (speak, understand, read, write in the
language) that could quite confuse the students: auditing grades (AU), withdraws (W),
credit (CR) vs. no credit (NC), adding dates, dropping dates, grading scales, attendance
etc.
According to Dornyei (2001b), “make the strange familiar” (55) is certainly the
very first step teachers ought to undergo in order to make students more comfortable with
FLL. Teachers ought to explain to students what is expected by giving them examples
and eventually making comparisons if necessary. Thus, teachers are the ones who
ultimately “set […] specific learner goals” (81).
It is very important that teachers specify and clarify the objectives of the course at
the very beginning. Clarity is one important element in communication. Moreover, it
makes students more comfortable with the learning experience. If a goal is
misunderstood, because of lack of clarity, then misunderstanding and its consequences
are more likely to take place. For these reasons, a goal should be “clear, measurable,
challenging [and] realistic.” (84) In this way, a goal, in order to be accomplished, has to
be guided. One of the teachers’ other duties, in fact, is to guide the students toward the
attainment of the more “proximal subgoals” (Dornyei, 1994a: 276) perceived by the
extrinsically motivated students as the main focus of FLL’s general (e.g., do good in a
test, “the [marker] […] of progress” ibid). It is very important that the students accept all
the goals of the course, “regardless” (Dornyei, 2001a: 51) of whether they like them or
not. The goals could be extrinsically short-term ones, namely exams, or more rarely
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
30
intrinsically long-term ones,6 namely reaching language proficiency.
Making the strange familiar helps students evaluate and accept the goal in a
positive way in order to reach the extrinsic subgoals first (i.e., get a good grade),
consequently reaching what is more instrumentally relevant (i.e., get a good job). 7
1.6.2 The Process-Oriented Model: Avoiding If Instances
Any reason or orientation is relevant if: 1) it is preceded by goal acceptance, and 2) it is
followed by the formulation of the intention. Dornyei (2001b) summarizes these stages in
more details in what he calls the process-oriented model (42) involved with L2
motivational field throughout time. According to this process,8 positive evaluations of a
goal (e.g., FLL) are at the base of any motivated behavior. Let’s keep in mind that this
process was the result of several studies; however, it was never validated.
When there is the formation of an intention, an individual shows to have accepted
and perceived a goal as positively relevant to oneself.9 This stage is also known as
preactional phase or choice motivation. Intention formation leads to the consequent
actional phase,10
also known as executive motivation, according to which the student will
6 The terms intrinsic/extrinsic were described by Ryan & Deci (2000) as “doing something because it is
inherently interesting or enjoyable” and as “doing something because it leads to a separable outcome,” (55)
respectively, for instance, maintain a high GPA. See also Bénabou (2003) and Brown (1990). 7 However, Dornyei (1994b) suggests the idea that some foreign language learners are more extrinsically
motivated rather than instrumentally motivated because “job or salary-related motives” [are] very often not
too relevant” (22) because they represent a long-term goal attainment. 8 See Dornyei (2001b) for more details.
9 If a subject is experiencing a positive emotional state, he/she will unlikely experience any others. In this
way, the motivational maintenance system (MMS) is activated supporting only the strongest state based on
the commitment to a goal or, as Halisch & Kuhl (1987) suggest, “to a specified action.” (284) This is why it
is very important that students sense positive feelings. 10
The actional phase depends on how strong and organized preactional stage is.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
31
gather the resources that will be employed to accomplish a goal.11
Once a goal has been
accomplished, the individual establishes during the post actional phase, or critical
retrospection stage, whether a goal is successfully reached. If success is perceived, then
there is consequent dismissal of the original intention and the formulation of a new one.
(Dornyei, 2001b: 85-100) We can conclude, keeping this model in mind that, the more a
goal is accepted positively, the more an individual is motivated, thus the more chances to
successfully accomplish a goal (e.g., learn a foreign language).
On the other hand, if there is no positive relevancy of a goal, or in other words, if
there is no positive evaluations of a goal, then motivation will more unlikely occur. This
is why it is necessary that teachers must carefully avoid any instances that would
generate if instances. In other words, teachers must avoid any happenings that tend to
bring effects that would somehow affect FLL negatively. Instead, teachers should favor
positive ones, once they become aware of them.
1.6.3 Maintaining Motivation
According to Dornyei (2001a) motivation does not only need to be created, but more
importantly it needs to be maintained since students tend to doze off in the classroom,
and tend to ultimately skip the class. Chambers (1999) provides some evidence which
points out some sort of diminishment in enthusiasm. Maintaining motivation is thus the
very problematic dilemma teachers wish to magically solve.
For some reasons, unknown to us, students’ interest toward a course, specifically
11
There is in fact some delay before actual action takes place; this fraction of time is called initiation of
intention enactment, that is, find the right time to engage in action which can be delayed because of
distractions.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
32
the foreign language course, tends to diminish considerably. According to Chambers
(1999), “pupils appear disgruntled.” (81) This means that their reasons to learn a foreign
language decrease in relevancy, or worthiness. To my big regret, this writer herself
noticed a certain degree of reluctance in students. During this writer’s first experience as
a pre-service teacher at Youngstown State University in the Fall 2003, Italian (IT) 1550,
Elementary Italian, she noticed students, as Dornyei (2001b) suggests, “[losing] sight of
the goal, [getting] tired or bored [and getting attracted to] distractions.” (60)
Dornyei (1994a, 2001a) gives great attention to this core stage, suggesting ways
for maintaining motivation in order to avoid if happenings. Some of these strategies were
perceived by this writer as crucial and are reported as follows:
1) “Making learning stimulating and enjoyable” (72) or, in other words, increase
the attractiveness of the course content (Dornyei, 1994a). In order to keep
students highly motivated, teachers should break the “monotony, make the tests
more interesting and increase the involvement of students.” (Dornyei, 2001a: 73)
Teachers should alternate lectures to more down-to-earth material, such as
bringing in magazines, CDs containing songs, and the like, to make the tasks
more varied.
2) “Presenting tasks in a motivating way” (78) or, in other words, “increase
students interest and involvement in the tasks” (Dornyei, 1994a: 281) on which
students base most of their learning. For this reason, tasks should be interesting so
that students get more involved in getting the proper exercise needed. Tasks
should allow “exotic” (Dornyei, 1994a: 281) aspects of the language or “fantasy,
intriguing, personal [elements]” (Dornyei, 1994a: 281) of it (e.g., teachers could
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
33
introduce a task concerned with a specific type of food). Students most often tend
not to look at the task as a useful thing, rather the opposite. What they should
understand is that tasks are meant to reinforce a topic, to apply the teaching to the
practical use of a language and to keep a certain language plasticity. Like
anything else, if language is not practiced, then it is more likely to atrophy (just
like a muscle does if it does not get its proper exercise) or to be forgotten.
According to Dornyei (2001a), the best way to explain to students the importance
of a task is by explaining its “utility.” (76) They can do this by foreshadowing an
important topic, for example, in order to make students guess what is next and
provide the “strategies” (ibid) so that students can accomplish the task correctly.
More importantly, tasks allow “competition [and] humor” (ibid; see also Keller,
1987) even though some scholars believe that humor might be polluting for the
classroom environment.
3) Increase “course-specific motivational components” (Dornyei, 1994a: 277)
namely “interest” (ibid), and “satisfaction” (278), the latest also supported by
Keller (1987) through his ARCS model. If the student is interested in what the
teacher has presented, then he/she is more likely to be satisfied with the course
and the material.
According to Dornyei (1994a), it is very important to “arouse and sustain
curiosity and attention” (281) in order to “decrease student anxiety” (ibid) and increase
“group-cohesion” (279). The focal point is that we have to lead students toward positive
evaluations of the foreign language experience in order to make it worthy, or relevant.
This could be accomplished through the introduction of positive stimuli which would
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
34
support those ways that Dornyei (1994a; 2001a) suggests to maintain motivation.
1.7 The Neurology of Motivation
A great deal of contribution to the subject of L2 motivation is brought through the work
of Schumann et al. (2004) who attempt to illustrate L2 motivation from an inner point of
view.
This writer wanted to include this view to remind researchers that neurobiology
does indeed contribute to research. In fact, neurologist views are most of the time
forgotten in the SLA research. As Schumann and his colleagues (2004) maintain, “[…]
such claims often reflect an overriding ignorance of underlying neural mechanisms, a
dismissive attitude about the neurosciences that must end.” (xii) Both L1 and L2 learning
are cognitive processes which are “mediated” (ibid) by the brain. “Therefore,
neurobiology is as central as linguistics to our enterprise [and if] SLA [ignores] this
information [it] deliberately [imposes] a handicap on its endeavors.” (ibid)
Of course SLA neurology speculates on what is going on the brain. The brain
accumulates lots of information every day. It amazingly expands by absorbing new
reports and this is probably why it will be impossible to have a certain and precise
documented work on how it exactly functions. The brain learns along with its researcher
and vice versa. The more the researcher learns, the more the brain evolves and expands.
1.7.1 We Love Dopamine!
At the time of birth, there are thousands of neural connections which strengthen at
the moment in which the new born starts to interact with the surrounding environment.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
35
Thus, the richer the environment, the tighter the neural connections, the more ways an
individual will have available to perceive the world - or a foreign language – developing
a value that is considered to be by Schumann et al. (2004) “the basis for all activity [in
fact] we perceive, move, cognize, and feel on the basis of [this] value.” (24) In order to
determine the value of an experience (i.e., worthiness or relevancy), a social situation or
an educational one, individuals evaluate stimuli.
Stimuli are positively evaluated if the scale they adopt is principally based on the
“novelty, pleasantness, and relevance [of] the individual’s goals or needs […].” (25) The
evaluations, or “appraisals” (26) if positive, “generate emotions such as joy, happiness,
[and so forth] and these emotions lead to action tendencies, such as, the readiness to
undertake mental or motor behaviors in relations to stimulus.” (ibid) In other words, if the
scale adopted is based on positive stimuli, then a motivated behavior will more likely
occur (but not necessarily).
With no confusion, we understand that learning should be enhanced at the
moment in which the student positively evaluates it. In other words learning takes place
when the student regards something as being relevant – or worthy. Hence, if the student
evaluates positively the learning situation – or even a strategy used in the classroom –
because he/she sensed a pleasant feeling (for instance, interest, satisfaction, joy, novelty,
pleasantness, happiness, and the like) then dopamine (DA) is released into the substantia
nigra facilitating the learning. (32) Therefore, if the DA chemical is not released12
there
would be no learning and consequently, no motivation involved. In fact, in order to
release DA there has to be a specific and clear goal, which has to first be accepted, and
then has to be positively evaluated by the students.
12
McClelland (1987) preceded Schumann et al. (2004) founding.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
36
Teachers, but also students, should be exposed to these notions in order to learn
and remember, as Schumann et al. (2004) suggest, those “actions that result in increased
DA activity in order to repeat those actions to increase learning [and] those
situations/actions in which there was depressed DA, [avoiding] those situations.” (32)
Motivation does depend by a chemical release since it is in our innate biological
nature. However, we are not here to bring further validity to Schumann et al.’s (2004)
theory even though it will be employed to additionally support this writer’s hypothesis
(advanced in chapter 3).
Conclusion
A noticeably long introduction to human motivation was given in order to launch us into
the L2 motivational field. Motivation was briefly introduced by bilingualism and the fact
that 9.3 percent of Americans speak both their native language and another language
fluently. On the other hand, 90.7 percent made us wonder the reason why some people
are utter failures in terms of foreign language learning (our focus) as opposed to second
language learning.
In order to apply this unstable variable in the L2 field, it was necessary to
understand some general concepts and theories involved with general motivation. This
stimulated the mind of researchers in the psychological field whose results were utilized
in the educational field, creating a myriad of hypotheses around what makes a person be
more or less motivated. Not surprisingly, general motivation has been the focus of many
theories advanced by a great variety of fields (psychology and education are two of the
many) creating a complicated net of implications rather than validated explanations.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
37
Weiner (1992) faced the issue by simply dividing the theories into two main fields: a
mechanist view (which conceived a person to be a machine driven by homeostatic
instincts) and a more cognitive view (which conceived a person to be a cognitive thinker
responsible for his/her own actions apt to reach hedonistic pleasure).
Gardner departed from general motivation theories, developing the most
influential theory related to the second language motivational field. However, his model
was conceived, by some researchers, as too overwhelming because it blocked the
blooming of other thinking on the L2 motivational field. Other influential thinking was
furnished by Gardner & Lambert (1972). Additionally, Dornyei (2001a) gave a more
modern understanding on the matter; however it was never validated.
Before taking any further steps into the L2 motivational field, this writer thought
it was necessary to put particular emphasis on individual differences and time. They seem
in fact to tremendously play a determinant role in the motivational trend.
Dornyei (1994a, 2001b) and Schumann et al. (2004) gave the most significant
contribution to the L2 motivational field who suggested that learning can be enhanced by
transforming it into a positive stimulus as a way to maintain motivation. The latter, seems
in fact occur by avoiding if instances, favoring indeed those ways that Dornyei (1994a;
2001a) hypothesizes to sustain motivation.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
38
2. Humor
2.1 The Definitions
Humor has become nowadays the object of research by specialists, including
psychologists, anthropologists, linguists and teachers. This subject was considered by
scientists some decades ago, as Durant & Miller (1988) suggest, “as being too enjoyable
to be treated” seriously (6). Moreover, according to Sheppard (1977), “the humor
researcher has long been plagued by the many types and definitions of humor,” (227)
which differed from theory to theory, and from individual to individual causing Levine
(1969) to suggest that “no pattern of human behavior is so full of paradoxes.” (1)
Similarly, Robinson (1991) notes that the complexity of the issue is clear enough by just
looking at the “myriad of related terms” (10) used to describe it, namely “wit, satire,
punning, clowning, teasing, joking, comedy pantomime, banter, sarcasm, cartoons etc.”
(ibid) Moreover, historical and social variation further complicates the definitory issue. In
fact, as Attardo (1994) explains, “the very things that people find humorous seems to
change.” (7) The conclusion is that “most authors simply avoid the issue by not defining
it” (ibid) since by doing this, they would “draw artificial boundaries between the
humorous phenomena” (10). For this thesis’ s purpose, we will use, according to common
practice in the field (Attardo, 1994), the general term of “humor.” Our definition of
humor, following Attardo & Chabanne (1992; see also Bremmer & Roodenburg, 1997) is
that of a text (in the broadest sense, i.e., including cartoons, etc.) with the perlocutory
goal of “making the audience laugh” (Attardo & Chabanne, 1992: 171). Needless to say,
actual laughter is irrelevant: what matters is the intention of the text producer to cause a
certain psycho-physiological reaction in the recipient of the text, namely the perception
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
39
of funniness.
In more recent times, the word humor assumed other undertones suggesting
something now more abstract, something found, as McGhee (1979) suggests, “only in our
minds [that we can perceive]”, but “[that] is not an emotion [nor] a kind of behavior” (6).
In other words, humor would represent a process the mind undergoes (i.e., “a mental
phenomenon” Attardo, 1994: 10) and it would, often but not necessarily always, manifest
itself “with a complex neurophysiological manifestation [identified with] laughter”
(ibid).13
Humor is the product of a very complex process that both body and mind undergo
and is thought to give us a break from life’s many problems. For instance, war nowadays
might trouble our mind; through humor, we take a break, even though for few minutes,
from such a reality as a way to recharge ourselves. In this regard, Adams et al., (2001)
look at humor as:
One of the most healthy, healing phenomena human beings have. It is a cognitive,
emotional, and physical response to stress. It gives us balance and a perspective and
provides a comic relief and survival from all the seriousness of living. (293)
Psychoanalytically speaking, Freud saw it differently and such a difference was
illustrated by Sheppard (1977) as “a mental attitude used to alleviate suffering […].”
(227) Of course, and with no surprise, this definition covers humor only partially.
Interestingly, Raskin (1985) sees humor as the mean through which “we express
enjoyment [or pleasure’s perception]” (19).14
13
Laughter is not a reliable indicator of humorous intent. See Attardo (1994) for further details. 14
“Or not express something” (Raskin, 1985: 19).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
40
2.2 What Is so Funny About It? The Theories
Raskin (1985) states that most humor theories are partial theories. This sentiment is also
echoed by others. For instance, Durant & Miller (1988) maintain that “practically none of
[the theories] cover the whole topic [of humor]. There is almost always a series of
exceptions which can be made to what purports to be a comprehensive theory of [it].”
(10) Most theories developed around humor cover definite aspects of humor rather than
others. This does not mean that these theories are totally unaware of the existence of the
others, but rather they complement one another giving us a more complete picture on the
matter. For instance, Attardo (1994), with reference to Lewis (1989), indicates that some
researchers “[chose] to ignore the essentialist theories [which are primarily employed to
examine the field of humor in linguistics] and [focused] on the teleological, sociological,
and psychological theories instead” (5). This is not a bad state of affairs since, by doing
this, the several theories "characterize the complex phenomenon of humor from very
different angles." (40) Hence, theories of humor (if not humor itself) are seen by Athey
(1977) as a “glass slipper” (215) in the way in which any theory can partially fit in it. “A
glass slipper is suitably fragile and every theoretical foot can fit into it to a certain extent”
(ibid).
According to Raskin (1985) the theories on humor would be divided into three
main types:15
"cognitive-perceptual,16
social-behavioral and psychoanalytical.” (31) Each
15
While Attardo (1994) indicates three broader divisions: “Essentialist, teleological [and] substantialist
theories used in humor” (1). 16 Cognitive-perceptual suggests higher thinking involvement proper of adults (rather than children). This
means that something needs to be perceived and elaborated in order to be ultimately understood. This is
why we see included in this category the theories related to incongruous. Incongruity is thought to be the
main basic feature of humor and is also thought to be considered helpful in terms of foreign language learning, as it will be illustrated shortly.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
41
theory ought to immediately suggest its competence in the field and is summarized in
Table 3 (Attardo, 1994: 94) and reproduced as follows:
Table 3
Cognitive Social Psychoanalytical
Incongruity Hostility Release
Contrast Aggression Sublimination
Superiority Liberation
Triumph Economy
Derision
Disparagement
Raskin (1985) together with Morreall (1983) provide an overview of the main
theories proposed, which covers several fields, namely “physiological, philosophical [and
the] psychoanalytical [ones].” (Raskin, 1985: 38) The latter, postulated by its main
exponent Freud (1905/1960) and his “economy theory”, states that “[the] enjoyment
[individuals experience through jokes] is no doubt correctly to be attributed to economy
in psychical expenditure.” (120) That is, an individual’s enjoyment derives from the
exploitation of a certain amount of energy. It should be noted that the economy theory is
currently discredited (Attardo, 1994).
Morreall (1983) identifies the earliest theory on relief as being introduced with
Shaftesbury in 1711 who stated that individuals tend to escape reality’s constraints
through the employment of either “burlesque, mimicry, or buffoonery” (Shaftesbury,
1727, quoted in Morreall, 1983: 20). Such a theory would possibly overlap with
Hobbesian theory, according to which people laugh “in scorn at those who have been
constraining” (20), which led Alexander Bain (1875, quoted in Morreall, 1983) to
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
42
psychologically analyze “[the] constraints and the role of laughter in breaking free of
them” (Morreall, 1983: 21). Raskin (1985), with reference to Mindness (1971), refers to
humor in terms of “liberation;” (38) in fact, as Mindness (1971) maintains:
Every aspect of our existence, from the most trivial to the most profound, is molded by
group expectations. It should come as no surprise, then, that the sight of a comic ignoring
conventions excites us… because it provides us, vicariously, a moment of freedom from
the prisons of our adjustments” (31).
We are prisoners of our own society and its rules. If we manage to take the chance
to laugh at what controls us, we feel a little freer from such constrictions and we
experience some degree of control over such demanding institutions. What humor does is
to express, according to Monro (1951), something usually “inappropriate” (242) which
Freud identified with “sex and hostility” (Morreall, 1983: 38) in particular. However, as
Morreall (1983) suggests, “any taboo can set the stage for relief laughter” (38) especially
if the latter happens to occur in a safe context (e.g. students cannot necessarily show their
anger toward a teacher, but if they happen to hear that the teacher ‘was mugged’ they end
up releasing an already-build-up energy caused by their feelings’ suppression). The relief
theories’ basic principles are 1) the pleasure deriving from the release of an already-
build-up nervous energy, which ensures homeostatis.17
This principle was already
identified by Spencer (1911, found in Morreall 1983). It is opposed to 2) the pleasure
deriving from the release of that energy caused by specific situations; for instance,
“nonsexual, nonhostile jokes” (Morreall, 1983: 22) and their incongruities contained in
the punch line. Incongruities would be noticed, using Morreall’s words (1983), when “the
story takes an unexpected turn [and when] the emotional energy which has built up is
17
This term was mentioned in chapter one while arguing around the general theories of motivation.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
43
suddenly superfluous and demands release [through] laughter” (Morreall, 1983: 22).18
More in particular, Raskin (1985) brings to our attention a more “contemporary
psycholog[ical]” (40) analysis of the relief theory. Such a theory is based on the “arousal-
safety theory” (ibid) according to which an individual produces laughter when he/she
“evaluates the stimulus as safe,” (ibid) where safeness brings internal equilibrium (i.e.,
hedonistic). Something gives us pleasure at the moment in which we evaluate a stimulus
positively. It is such a positiveness that helps us deal with the constrictions.
Thus, the view of humor proposed by the relief theories would account for the
fact that an individual may perceive a humorous stimulus as a positive phenomenon. In
fact, it tends to bring an individual to reach his/her homeostatic equilibrium – responsible
for hedonistic pleasure.
2.2.1 The Incongruous
According to the incongruity theory, elaborated by Immanuel Kant and Arthur
Schopenhauer (Attardo, 1994), something is humorous when incongruity is perceived.
Using Attardo & Chabanne’s words (1992), incongruity is perceived when “a complete
break with predictability” (169) is noticed or, in Forabosco's words (1994), "when one
receives an information which differs from the cognitive model" (12). In the popular
doctor's joke introduced by Raskin (1985) and quoted here to better illustrate the concept,
"Is the doctor at home?" the patient asked in his bronchial whisper. "No," the doctor's young and
pretty wife whispered in reply. "Come right in." (Raskin, 1985:32)
the incongruity can be easily identified with the doctor's wife's response “come right in”
which signals the evasion from the basic cognitive model which would impose the
18
This is why we can compare the relief theory to the incongruity theory.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
44
doctor's wife to answer with, for example, “you can try again later”. Instead, she answers
with what is not expected (element of surprise) which creates the incongruity. According
to McGhee (1979), the presence of the incongruity would in turn let an individual
perceive something as "unexpected, out of context, inappropriate, unreasonable, illogical,
[and] exaggerated" (10).
As we know, when a speaker is confronted with humor, laughter is not produced
at all times. In fact, not everybody appreciates humor in the same way. A person may in
fact perceive the incongruity of a joke and see the humor because he/she understood that
the speaker introduced him/her in a joking context, what Raskin (1985) calls “non-bona-
fide communication” (125). In other words, a non-bona-fide communication occurs
when the recipient is aware the text about to be heard is not truthful because the speaker
is either not telling the truth or “play acting” (101) or telling a joke. However, this same
person may decide not to laugh at it because of his/her own values and beliefs. The lack
of laughter may indicate an individual preference or contextual inappropriateness. For
instance, a person reading the doctor’s joke might not perceive the incongruity simply
because: 1) he/she did not get it or because non-conjugal affairs may not be considered a
humorous target19
in their L1, or 2) are instead considered “tabooed” (Attardo, 1994:
213), or 3) the recipient is not in the mood to laugh at a joke presented at the wrong time.
Having defined the concept of incongruity, we now turn to Raskin’s script-based
semantic theory which plays a fundamental role in perceiving the incongruous element of
a text.
19
See Ziv (1988b) for more details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
45
2.2.2 The Script-Based Semantic Theory
According to the script-based semantic theory, the lexicon represents the knowledge of
the individual about the meaning of word in the form of scripts (a.k.a., frames). A script
is, according to Raskin (1985):
A large chunk of semantic information surrounding the word or evoked by it. The script
is a cognitive structure internalized by the native speaker and it represents the native
speaker's knowledge of a small part of the world. Every speaker has internalized rather a
large repertoire of scripts of common sense which represent his/her knowledge of certain
routines, standard procedures, basic situations etc., for instance, the knowledge of what
people do in certain situations, how they do it, in what order etc. Beyond the scripts of
common sense every native speaker may, and usually does, have individual scripts
determined by his/her individual background and subjective experience and restricted
scripts which the speaker shares with a certain group, e.g., family, neighbors, colleagues,
[ethnicities,] etc., [and usually] with the whole speech community of native speakers of
the same language. (81)
Thus, the lexical elements in a sentence and the combinatorial rule process will help the
individual "to derive the meaning of the sentence out of the meanings of the words which
make up the sentence." (76) Most of the time, a single word can activate different
associations or scripts. In other words, recalling the doctor's joke, the word doctor
generally recalls the words hospitals, health, prescription, fear etc., while the word lover
recalls the words sex, unfaithfully, lie, etc. This means that the script for doctor and lover
represents for an individual the common knowledge he/she has learned through society
(i.e., everybody knows who a doctor is, where we can find him/her, what his/her role is
etc.). Additionally, these scripts could include a more personal meaning because of
previous experiences or because of the individual’s background. Obviously, the more
meanings one is aware about a word, the bigger one’s own understanding and the more
the chances to make connections between or among items. "The more scripts one has
internalized the deeper one's comprehension inaccessible to the non-initiated." (Raskin,
1985: 97)
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
46
According to the script-based semantic theory, a text becomes humorous if:
Both of the conditions in (108) are satisfied.
(108) (i) The text is compatible, fully or in part, with two different scripts
(ii) The two scripts with which the text is compatible are opposite (Raskin,
1985: 99)
We now turn to children’s humor as a way to understand how higher thinking
skills (e.g., perceive an incongruity) come to exist.
2.3 Children's Humor
A great deal of attention should be given to how humor develops in the individual at early
stages of L1 learning. In other words, we are going now to focus on an individual’s
cognitive abilities, which are thought to be responsible for humor’s perception and
production. As McGhee (1979) suggests, “for centuries, virtually no attention has been
given to how the capacity for humor develops in the very young child” (46).
Understanding how cognitive abilities develop would help us to understand humor’s birth
in human beings since we all laugh at/because of something. In fact, “the capacity for
humor is built into the nervous system,” (64) it is in our DNA, though, it varies, again,
because of individual differences20
and according to the maturity of humor’s addressee.
Recalling Forabosco’s (1994) concepts of “bifase” and “monofase” humor will help us to
understand a small portion of the main differences according to which children’s humor
varies from adult’s humor.
The meaning of an incongruity changes according to the child’s age. For instance,
for children of age seven or eight calling a spoon a fork is already reason for laughter
20
Interestingly, no sex differences seem to interfere at any age. See Kagan (1971) for more details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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while a child of age 10 does not find this reason to be particularly amusing or laughable
probably because it is not mentally challenging. One important fact that should not be
omitted is that some studies (Sheppard, 1977) showed that there would exist “a
relationship between humor levels and age” (227). Again, calling a spoon a fork is funny
up to a certain age; obviously, humor would be more sophisticated by degrees of a child’s
cognitive growth, in fact, “[…] the humor of adolescence differs from the child’s in its
ability to incorporate self-reference, to apply a metaphorical interpretation to events, and
to discover social truths in humour or satire” (ibid). A humor that derives from a solved
not-too-hard riddle is more satisfactory to the self because he/she underwent some type of
analysis which brought a certain degree of effort employed in the resolution. Using
Wright’s words (1977), “the degree of complexity in humor enjoyed by the child follows
closely his/her stage of cognitive development […].” (234) Hence, as Sheppard (1977)
suggests, “with increasing development one finds not merely a linear increase in
understanding, but qualitative advances in the ability to relate humorous events to
personal experience and to seek a generality of meaning in humor” (225). The closer an
individual gets to adulthood, the higher his/her cognitive thinking which will let him/her
perceive the humor and relate it to what he/she knows and will eventually help him/her
get some logic out of it.
2.3.1 Children as Cognitive Thinkers
Two different levels of perception,21
which initiate humor, are presented (Raskin, 1985)
21
Bariaud (1977) and McGhee (1979) introduce two levels which would be identified with “reality and
fantasy,” (Bariaud, 1977: 230) respectively. The former would “serve as a reference [and would need to be
ignored] to accept the existence of the incongruous on the level of play and of unreality” (ibid). It is unclear
whether Bariaud’s two levels and Raskin’s can be considered as the same thing.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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by recognizing the two ambiguous meaning of the words taken into consideration. The
two levels respectively provide, as McGhee (1979) suggests: 1) “a normal set of
circumstances, [and, 2)] the less probable[,] some sort of incongruous situation.” (76)22
Children, as opposed to adults, develop this capability at age seven, when that is, they
“[start detecting] linguistic ambiguity.” (ibid)
During this last stage, number four,
children would be capable of:
1) Pulling together and contrasting the incongruous elements of the situation, (2)
comparing the incongruous situation with the normal […] one, and (3) giving a
motivational interpretation of some character of the cartoon joke” (75).
2.3.2 Infants’ Smiles
The meaning of a smile changes according to the child’s mental growth. For instance, a
child is observed to be smiling (rather than laughing) one week after his/her birth during
his/her sleep. As McGhee (1979) indicates, his/her first “wakeful smile” (48) is noticed
two weeks after birth, especially after feeding.23
A “fully alert smile” (49) is noticed at
the end of the first month and is caused by the combination of the mother’s voice and
some “tactile [stimulations, namely] tickling” (ibid) of the infant.
24 Only between three
and four months they are capable of a more conscious smile, caused by recognition. In
other words, the infant “[recognizes] a face as being familiar” (McGhee, 1979: 49)
because memory starts to develop forming schemas.25
At first though, infants tend to
smile to any unmoving faces, while it is only between five and six months infants
22
This is why incongruity can create some problems at a semantic level, especially if cognitive abilities are
not fully developed and if scripts are not available. See 2.4.1.1 for further details. 23
These types of smiles would be identified by Greig (1923) with the terms mechanical smiling as opposed
to expressive smiling. The former works on a more unconscious level, the latter at a more conscious one. 24
See Greig (1923) for further details. 25
A grouping of elements related to objects, places and even persons. See Piaget (1952) for more details.
Such schemas would be necessary for the child in order to recognize an incongruity. In fact, according to
Bariaud (1977), an object appear to a child to be funny looking because “the child [possesses] the mental
schema corresponding to the usual appearance of the object” (230).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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discriminate his/her mother’s face’s proper features. Fascinatingly, children seem to
show better their ability to smile if moderately challenged26
mentally27
- even though
there is still no “conscious awareness.” (50) According to Kagan (1971), “[an] infant
smiles to a face because it recognizes it, [and] not because he has been reinforced by an
external agent for issuing this behavior” (154).28
We cannot yet really speak for children of the same type of humor adults are
amused by, even though it is thought that children’s first laughter is shown at four
months.29
2.3.3 The Triggers Responsible for Cognition
Children are ready to develop their cognitive abilities once they start mastering fantasy
and make-believe behaviors (McGhee, 1977, 1979) generated by curiosity toward the
novelty. In its turn, the novelty is believed to lead to the discovery of new items and
events whose features, if not encountered before, will be added to already existing
schemas (or new schemas will eventually be created) thus expanding children’s
26
According to Kagan (1971), challenge leads to “a state of resolution [which follows] assimilation of a
discrepant event or solution of a difficult problem.” (158) Hence, the child smiles. On the other hand, if
there is no effort (or challenge), the child does not smile. Additionally, as McGhee (1977) suggests, “[…]
humor appreciation should be associated with some optimal moderate amount of cognitive challenge to
comprehension.” (200) Hence, as Wright (1977) suggests, “if the joke strains comprehension, or is too
easily understood, amusement is less” (234). 27
If a new object is presented to the child, the child does not smile unless the same object is repetitively
introduced to him/her (thus creating a schema for that specific object). On the other hand, continuous
presentation of the same object leads the child to accuse some form of boredom. When the child becomes
bored, he/she has assimilated the schema for recall in the proximal future. 28
The recognition process is preceded by the uncertainty process. The latter causes the accumulation of
tension which is released through smiles. Smiles indicate that the process of assimilation is in its turn
completed. See Kagan (1971) for more details. 29
Laughter can be compared to smiling in children. In fact, the data available suggest this comparison
(Greig, 1923). Commonsensically, smiling becomes laughter when sounds are added. Thus, smiling
precedes laughter, but neither phenomenon happens right after birth (but only some times after). Obviously,
their occurrence change from child to child.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
50
knowledge.30
According to McGhee (1979), children are ready to perceive the first
incongruities once they “understand the real order of things.” (56) Incongruities are
created by perceiving specific events “[being] at odds with reality,” (61) but only when
the child realizes that the events exist in fantasy” (ibid).
2.3.4 Stages 1, 2 and 3
During stage 1 (at around 2 years of age), laughter is caused by playing with objects or
mimicking activities, for instance, pretending a pen is a phone. In stage 2, such
pretending is named. When asked “what are you doing”, the child will respond
“telephone mommy”. Moreover, during this stage, the child is particularly amused by
name switching (i.e. call a cat, a dog). Though, laughter appears only when it is the child
doing the switching in order “to be sure of the fantasy nature of any given incongruity”
(McGhee, 1979: 71).31
In stage 3, the child clearly shows “advances in language
development” (73) by developing a “conceptual thinking capacity” (ibid) according to
which words finally refer to clusters of objects or events. During this stage, children base
their laughter on both “rhyming of words and the creation of nonsense words […],” (75)
even though they are not totally consciously aware of what is being said, and on
“incongruous appearance of things” (73) (i.e. a cat with two heads etc.).
Exploring L1 child’s humor development may provide us with insights into L2
development, provided that we keep in mind the fundamental differences between the
two domains of inquiry. We turn now to L2 humor.
30
See McGhee (1979) for more details. 31
If the adult does the switching, then the child tends to show some sort of confusion, unless there is
metacommunication (e.g., let’s pretend that…). This happens because he/she is not able to determine
whether what was said by the adult is true or false (i.e., possible or not possible in reality).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
51
2.4 Understanding a Joke in a Foreign Language
There is scant research out there on humor in L2 and most of it is based on analyses of
types of the humor among Non Native Speakers (NNS) rather than on the stages of its
acquisition. From the few sources we have available (Broner & Tarone, 2001; Schmitz,
2002; Deneire, 2002; Davies, 2003), and that we will describe shortly, we can say that L2
humor is produced, understood and expanded even at early L2 stages by the NNS (Broner
& Tarone, 2001; Davies 2003) – even though the types and levels of appreciation and
perception differ (Deneire, 2002; Schmitz, 2002).
However, according to Deneire (2002), understanding humor in L2 would
constitute a very sophisticated phenomenon that an early L2 learner would not be able to
undergo because of his/her limited lexicon and linguistic competence: “the understanding
of jokes in a foreign language reflects a fairly high level of proficiency.” (291) In fact, “at
the beginning […], students tend to equate one word with one meaning and often fail to
perceive ambiguous meanings, even though these mechanisms exist in their own
language.” (290-291) Early L2 learners might recognize one meaning of a word, but not
its possible other.
2.4.1 The Issues Involved with Humor in Foreign Language Learning
Two issues are involved with humor’s exploitation in foreign language learning: the
availability of scripts together with whether the humor should be introduced at any level
of second language learning.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
52
2.4.1.1 Script Availability: The Keys Determinant for National Styles of Humor
As Greig (1923) suggests, something is funny because we make it funny. For instance,
someone who slips on a banana’s skin might be funny for one person, but not for another.
Funniness is then determined by personal beliefs or the beliefs of a culture. If we fail to
know such beliefs, we will unlikely perceive the funniness shared by a group. This is why
humor “often balks at national [frontiers]” (71) or in other words, this is why, for
instance, Italian humor could fail to be understood by Americans.
People laugh because of the scripts of their own nationality,32
which are
sometimes known and shared by a person or another group that does not belong to that
same community (e.g., a foreign language classroom according to Schmitz’s 2002 ideas).
Thus, if such a cultural knowledge (other than a linguistic one, according to Deneire’s
2002 beliefs) is not shared, then laughter cannot be guaranteed. Using Monro’s words
(1951), “... humour depends on a fixed background of conventional beliefs, attitudes,
behavior.” (241-2) This is why a community, the Italian one for example, tends to laugh
more about the well-known carabiniere figure and not at all about the Poles.33
Using Deneire’s words (2002), “the contexts [in which jokes occur], usually
called scripts or schemas, may sometimes be shared across cultures (for example, taking
the plane or a bus), but they are usually language specific.” (293) Again, if a joke is
humorous for an Italian, (for examples, see jokes 1 and 2), it might not be for an
32
Even though there are universal scripts translatable and understandable in all languages. See Schmitz
(2002) for more details. Let’s not forget that the mechanisms of humor are universal (Attardo, 1994), but
the scripts specific to a culture change yielding one’s specific culture’s funniness. Thus, specific humorous
forms of a culture (e.g., knock-knock jokes and Italian colmi) cannot be translated easily. See Attardo
(2002) for more details. 33
Americans find jokes about Poles to be very humorous.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
53
American, and vice versa.34
This happens because scripts are not matching or are not
being activated because the word in consideration is not culturally shared or known (thus,
there is no semantic processing).
Let's try with these jokes,
(1) There is a man selling apple seeds down the road. A carabiniere stops by and asks the
man why he's selling apple seeds.
The man answers: - "Makes you smarter if you eat them!" -
The carabiniere: -"How much are they?"
The man: - "5euro each"
The carabiniere: "I want to buy three!" and hands the man 15euro. After eating them he
shouts out loud: - "For that price I could have got 8kg of apples and have a whole bounch
of seeds!!!"
The man: - "See!!! You are smarter already!"
The carabiniere: - "Give me three more"
(2) A carabiniere asks his carabiniere friend: - "Do you know what pourquoi means?"
His friend replies: -"Why" -
- "Well, I was just wondering about it" -
If the hearer (or in this case reader) of these jokes supposedly is an American (or a
an Italian foreign language learner) with no knowledge of the Italian culture, this same
American individual will unlikely find this joke funny because he/she might not know
that a carabiniere is a person who is part of one of the Italian police corps and, for some
reason,35
they are considered to be dumb. Carabinieri, identified by Ziv (1988) as “the
police under the responsibility of the Minister of the Interior,” (152) are often the target
of Italian aggressive humor36
because they are considered to be dumb “jerks” (ibid)
34
Joke (1) was introduced in my foreign language (FL) classroom. The word carabiniere was substituted
with the word man in order to avoid what Raskin (1985) calls "[allusions]." (46) According to Raskin
(1985), an allusion makes a joke "incomprehensible or unfunny to those who are not familiar with the
material alluded to” (ibid). 35
Ragusa & Roversi (2002) believe that this stereotypical humor is generated by Italian ethnic humor, not
directed at other ethnicities, but rather at groups within Italy itself (Ziv, 1988b), namely the Southerners, or
terroni. Interestingly, most of carabinieri are Southerners. See also Davies (1990) for more details. 36
As opposed to American aggressive humor which targets virgins and homosexuals and is often used,
according to Ziv (1988b) to “relieve […] frustrations” (178) and elevate an individual’s state of being. See
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
54
making them “the laughingstock of popular entertainment from puppet shows to the
movies.” (Ziv, 1988b: 152) Additionally, if the American individual who is reading the
joke has no knowledge of the European monetary system, of the measurement system
(i.e. Kilograms) and no knowledge of French, he would not know that, 1) the current
currency being in force is Euro and not Lira any longer, 2) that 1pound (lb) is equal to
16ounces (oz) and equal to .4536kg, and that 3) French pourquoi corresponds to the
English why.37
Forabosco (1994) explains this phenomenon by speaking of dynamic and cognitive
mastery of a matter where the former refers to the specific or general knowledge an
individual shows to have (briefly introduced above), while the latter refers to the fact that
the "non-comprehension of a text is due to the lack of linguistic resources or informative
references." (49) Thus, an individual has to be competent in both pragmatics (our
knowledge of the world) and semantics38
(our knowledge of a language), in order to be
able to finally perceive the incongruity.
2.4.1.1 The Debate between Deneire and Schmitz
Teaching a foreign language means teaching also and not only the grammar that lies at
the base of L2, but linguistically speaking, it means teaching also the scripts which often
also Davies (1990) and her distinctions between stupidity (under which the script carabinieri falls for
Italians, and poles for Americans) vs. canny (for instance, the genovesi for Italians, Yankees for
Americans). 37
Thus, if we attempt to translate these terms into the Target Language (TL) (i.e. carabiniere, kilograms,
pourquoi), as it happened every now and then to this writer during her experiment, the terms may lose their
humorous purpose. See Attardo (2002) for further details. 38
Ignored by Chomsky and his grammaticality vs. ungrammaticality, long criticized because, as Raskin
(1985) suggested, "[it] ignored completely all the other abilities provided by competence." (50)
Additionally, it barely took into consideration Katz and Fodor’s sentence in isolation, which was also
vividly criticized because it required an individual to analyze the sentence out of its context (and only
linguists can do this because they are trained). A sentence in isolation "[failed] to explain what a particular
sentence means [since an individual] never encounters [such a thing]" (62-63).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
55
are culture specific. Such qualitative teaching of L2 can be enhanced through the
employment of humor in the pedagogic environment as a means to have students aware
of language variety. However, Deneire (2002) and Schmitz (2002) argue whether humor
should be introduced at any foreign language learning level.
According to Deneire (2002), “the use of humor in teaching has been advocated
as a tool to make students sensitive to the structural and semantic differences between
different languages.” (291) If such an awareness is emphasized, then students will more
likely succeed in understanding L2 humor. Thus, if students lack what Forabosco (1994)
identifies as the aforementioned dynamic and cognitive knowledge39
the student will not
be able to perceive the humor in L2. Moreover, Deneire (2002) specifies in more details
that the success depends on “a fairly high level of linguistic, sociolinguistic, strategic, and
discourse competence” (291) speaking of the existence of a “humor competence.” (ibid)40
This is probably why most foreign language students fail to understand the humor
contained in some jokes (and this usually happens at early stages of foreign language
learning, when there is no high mastery of the language by the learners, culture awareness
least of all; though at these stages, as Broner & Tarone, 2001 and Davies, 2003 will
show, it is possible to produce humor).
Interestingly, Deneire (2002), with reference to Carrell (1984) points out how FL
learners process information in different ways:
Most beginning Foreign language learners (or poor readers in their first language) have a
tendency to process information word by word (bottom-up processing), and thus usually
fail to activate the necessary schemata for an appropriate understanding of the text. Other
readers tend to impose their own cultural schemata, thus distorting the intended meaning
of the text.” (294)
39
See also Deneire (2002) for further details. 40
Raskin postulated humor competence taking into consideration Chomsky’s grammatical competence and
Hymes’s communicative competence.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
56
In other words, L2 beginners (or even poor readers in L1) tend to fail to understand a text
for two reasons: 1) they either analyze the word outside of its context first, then they look
at the whole unit (failing to involve no previous knowledge), or 2) they analyze the text
on the base of what they already know with the risk of not understanding the text or even
creating out-of-place meanings. According to Deneire (2002), students fail to do this
because they are not aware of structural and semantic differences between languages, in
fact, he suggests:
In order to perceive and understand humor in intercultural contact, the learner needs to
become acculturated in the other group; he or she needs to recognize, legitimize, accept,
and appreciate the fundamental differences between cultures, and be ready to bridge these
differences in order to “feel” as people in the other culture do. Being aware that (1) every
culture has its own internal coherence, integrity, and logic, (2) all cultures are equally
valid, and (3) all people are at least partially culture bound, the learner will be armed to
switch from one mode of thinking to another one in different cultural contexts. There is
no doubt that reaching such a stage necessitates extended exposure to the foreign culture
and the overcoming of many hurdles, negative reactions, stages of cultural anomie,
sometimes even complete rejection of the other group’s values.” (295)
Thus, in order for learners to understand a text, learners ought to assume a second
identity so as to perceive the values and scripts of L2 culture. For instance, one could not
understand why Italians drink espresso right after lunch or dinner (even though this is not
necessarily a value, but a habit proper of Italian culture).41
Thus, one could introduce this
habit to the L2 learner as a way of expanding his/her knowledge of L2 culture. Deneire
(2002) believes that this stage would be appropriately taken care of in advanced learning
where the learner can employ the appropriate tools (i.e., a higher mastery of the L2)
necessary for the accomplishment of such a demanding goal (i.e., assume a second
identity). Humor “is often directed against outsiders in intergroup communication [and it]
makes it difficult, sometimes impossible, for the latter to enjoy the humor of the target
language” (295) unless one is aware of the scripts specific to a culture. If the L2 learner
41
Ziv (1988b) states that “a full study of Italian humor is also in many ways a study of the Italian way of
life” (133) even though “there is still no systematic study [on it]” (154).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
57
does not have the appropriate tools (e.g., knowledge of at least one extra meaning of a
word), then he/she will more likely fail to participate and be part of L2 humorous
happenings. This occurs because the L2 learner is not sharing the specific L2 (humorous)
scripts required in a context.
Schmitz (2002), on the other hand, proposes the opposite. He supports the idea
according to which it is useful to introduce humor at even early stages of foreign
language learning (and translating). This would make students aware of the cultural
possibilities even before they come in contact with the target language’s community.
“Bearing in mind that there is so much to learn about specific languages and their
respective cultures and so little time in most courses, it would not be wise to hold humor
entirely in abeyance until later stages.” (96) Though, Schmitz maintains that the humor,
in order to accomplish such a thing, has to be carefully selected, making sure there is
plenty of vocabulary available to students along with “the different readings or possible
scripts” (102). More importantly, “learners do not always develop joke and humor
competence in a foreign language immediately, but with sufficient input in the form of
humorous texts this competence can be nurtured for steady development during the
course of study. (ibid) Thus, if we follow Schmitz’s thinking (2002), we see that if humor
is appropriately introduced at early stages of foreign language learning, there will be a
chance of avoiding Deneire’s (2002) “hurdles, negative reactions, stages of cultural
anomie, sometimes even complete rejection of the other group’s values.” (Deneire, 2002:
295) According to Paulos (1980), such a rejection can be easily avoided if the
individuals are asked to engage in the “acceptance of certain values [which] is necessary
to an appreciation of humor” (26).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
58
2.4.2 Humor in Second Language Learning: From Hypothesis to Reality
McGhee (1979) earlier in this chapter brought to our attention the significance of L1
humor by focusing his analysis on the development of children’s cognitive abilities. This
writer noticed some similarities between his investigation and the work of Broner &
Tarone (2001), as we will see. Additionally, Davies’s (2003) study further supports the
existence of L2 humor.
Broner & Tarone’s (2001) study involved fifth-grade American-English students
in a Spanish full-immersion classroom. The study analyzed 13 hours of interaction during
a period of 5 months with 3 children only. All the sections (of the duration of an hour)
were appropriately recorded through a lapel microphone attached to the children’s shirt
and connected to a wireless transmitter. The activities, carried out without too much
interference from the researchers, focused on “creative writing […], geometry […], arts
and crafts, and statistics.” (368) The analysis of these sections showed the presence of
early humor’s production, characterized by sound play42
(rhymes; i.e. Ricola…Tricola)
and the creation of nonsense words (i.e. cello-female-embryo) both of which would be the
product of respectively phonological and semantic language play.43
(Broner & Tarone,
2001: 371) Through language play, hence amusement,44
the learner “internalizes and
retains as distinct the language varieties characteristic of different roles and registers and
42
“Leonard and Ben make jokes with the rhymes that make them laugh.” For instance, “Me gusta mi
Corazon… Pee Pee.” (Broner & Tarone, 2001: 370) Additionally, their humor would reflect typical
instances of sexuality (see pee pee) considered taboo. Such instances are expressed by children through
laughter as a relief. See McGhee (1979) for more details. 43
Language play (meant to amuse or entertain in this case, rather than to rehearse) constitutes one
important element leading to humor. See respectively Cook (2000) and Lantolf (1997) for further details. 44
According to Broner & Tarone (2001), “fun is an experience of positive affect that is often associated
with laughter” (364).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
59
can use them as desired” (Broner & Tarone, 2001: 371).45
Davies’s (2003) study focused instead on conversational joking (a key for
collaborative discourse, in its turn, a product of proficient communicative competence)
involving English language learners (from Arabia, France, Indonesia, Japan, Spain and
Thai) engaged in “ongoing extra-class groups” made of usually 6 participants with
American-English native speakers (NS). The study did prove the existence of humorous
happenings in a social context in which, again, the NS helped the NNS build “under
certain circumstances […] conversational joking discourse46
with native English
speakers, using scaffolding [and having] limited sociolinguistic resources.” (1381) These
exchanges, not only “[illustrated] the development of a shared culture of the language
learner as revealed through the content of the humor,” (ibid) but also helped the NS to
perceive, start a joking frame and eventually extend it. In other words, “in this situation,
the learners are given an opportunity not only to learn how to engage in the joking
activity, but alto to experience its social meaning in American society” (ibid).47
2.5 I Did Not Get It: My Right-Hemisphere Must Not Be Functioning Today…
Most of the results come from the field of cognitive neuropsychology which showed,
through clinical analysis, how humor calls for the work of both right and left
hemispheres. Thus, it greatly contributes to its study by shedding light on humans’
cognitive abilities. Many results, related to brain’s functioning, come from the
45
Thus, as Broner & Tarone (2001) suggest, “the more advanced the learner, the more capable the learner
is of participating in [language play]” (365). For this reason, we can hypothesize, that advanced learners are
more capable of producing, perceiving and understanding humorous forms. 46
This type of discourse was based on NNS’ reminisces; for instance, NNS were asked by NS “Can you
think of any funny things or misunderstanding that happened to you when you first arrived in the United
States?” (Davies, 2003: 1370) as a way of purposely leading them toward humorous contexts. 47
In this regard, Davies (2003) pointed out that “the joking highlighting the apparently arbitrary nature of
idiomatic expressions in language [seemed to be] a major problem for language learners” (1371).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
60
investigation of individuals affected by particular abnormalities.
48
A very important point to be remembered is the one maintained by Durant &
Miller (1988) and reported as follows:
Brain damage can leave a patient severely impaired in one area of cognition, such as
understanding jokes, but leave the same individual normal or almost normal in other
areas, such as understanding the syntax of sentences or how words refer to objects in the
world. (18)
In fact, if one area of the brain is damaged and is impairing one particular cognitive
ability (e.g., speech) it means that the particular area of the brain is (supposedly)
controlling a particular ability: “For example, if patients with damage to the right cerebral
hemisphere uniformly demonstrate a deficit in understanding jokes, then that region is
probably required for processing relevant to humour comprehension” (ibid).49
A first neurological approach to humor sees humor itself thought to be located in
the right side of the brain since right hemisphere damaged (RHD)50
patients have shown,
as Durant & Miller (1988) suggests, “to misunderstand sarcasm and indirect requests,”
(19)51
but not only.52
Though, we cannot really talk of an area of the brain specialized in
humor since humor itself is made up of several abilities which involve different areas of
the brain. However, we can certainly sustain (even empirically as we shall see) that the
right-hemisphere “may play a critical role in understanding and appreciating humor”
48
Individuals hit by a stroke and aphasic individuals. See Fabbro (1999) for more details. 49
Though, as Durant & Miller (1988) suggest, “different forms or aspects of humour require different
skills.” (18) Additionally, this hypothesis is supported by Svebak (1982) according to whom, “a
coordination of otherwise separate processes is typical in humor appreciation […]” (Svebak, 1982, quoted
in McGhee, 1983: 18, found in McGhee & Goldstein, 1983 Vol. 1). 50
According to Durant & Miller (1988), RHD patients are different from left hemisphere damaged patients
(LHD) who “are typically aphasic; that is, they have marked disorders of language […] [giving] the
impression of being very aware of their social environment. When talking to an LHD patient, one typically
has the sense that brain damage has seriously impaired the person’s linguistic abilities, but it has not
drastically altered the underlying personality [as in fact has RHD patients]” (20). 51
As Durant & Miller (1988) suggest, these are just “[generalizations]” (21) since, and again, it is
practically impossible to prove what is going on in the brain. 52
See Durant & Miller (1988) for more details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
61
(Durant & Miller, 1988: 19).
The experiment carried out by Brownell et al. (1983) identifies coherence as
being one of humor’s most significant skills.53
The study presented a control group, made
up of adult men less than seventy years of age who suffered no substantial brain
impairment, and the experimental group, formed of twelve RHD right- handed men less
than seventy years of age who were hit by a stroke. Both groups were asked to choose the
most appropriate answer among optional endings so that it would render the given text
humorous. The text taken into consideration is shown as it follows, but its punch line is
lacking:
The neighborhood borrower approached Mr Smith one Sunday afternoon and inquired,
“Say, Smith, are you using your lawnmower this afternoon?”
“Yes, I am,” Smith replied warily. (21)
The two groups were asked to choose among the three options available to them, namely
a punch line, (1) (the designated one), a straightforward ending indicated with (2) and a
non sequitur54
indicated with (3).
(1) “Fine, then you won’t be wanting your golf clubs. I’ll just borrow them.”
(2) “Do you think I could use it [the lawnmower] when you’re done?”
(3) “You know, the grass is always greener on the other side.” (22-3)
This study assessed by Brownell et al. (1983) showed that the RHD men scored worse
than the controls group. RHD men had a hard time choosing between (1) and (3).
Though, they clearly understood (2) confirming to have preserved some of the elements
necessary in a joke. However, they were not able to assign a new or different meaning to
53
This same coherence was thought to be, by Durant & Miller (1988), a “requirement of jokes.” (24) In this
optic, as McGhee (1983) earlier suggests, “surprise and coherence are important [elements] in humor based
on incongruity” (29). 54
A surprising ending which is incoherent with the events preceding it. It can be neutral, but also
humorous. See Durant & Miller (1988) for more details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
62
a final frame or punch line.55
Durant & Miller (1988) bring to our attention a similar
study carried out by Bihrle et al. (1986), which arrived at the same results. The only
difference was that the control group was formed by LHD patients who were exposed to
captionless four-frame cartoons so that they could be tested as well. Moreover, Gardner
(1981)56
notices that right-hemisphere57
impaired patients “[would be] unable to figure
out the underlying architecture or composition, the nature of, and relationship between,
the various parts and character of a story. Instead, each part stands alone, a single brick
unrelated to any other – or to the entire edifice” (76). Researchers hypothesized then the
localization of (humor) coherence in the right side of the brain (even though other areas,
placed in the anteriors of the frontal lobes, have not yet been examined). Thus, the ability
of one to understand a joke (in both L1 and L2 as well) depends on his/her ability “in
revising an interpretation of a punch line to achieve a coherent understanding of the
whole joke,” (Durant & Miller, 1988: 32) apparently localized in the right hemisphere.
As a consequence, and again, the more an individual shows to have developed
sophisticated cognitive abilities (speaking of mentally healthy individuals), the more
he/she will show mastery in the understanding of jokes - and ultimately in producing
jokes.
Furthermore, McGhee (1983) points out, with reference to another study, that “the
right hemisphere may be characterized by a greater degree of interconnectedness among
55
Though, such an inability was also noticed at a non-humorous level. See Durant & Miller (1988) for
more details. 56
According to McGhee (1983), the study assessed by Gardner (1981) indicated that “right-hemisphere
patients […] chose […] a significantly lower percentage of correct choices of the funniest caption from
among […] possible captions […] and a greater percentage of non sequitur endings as funniest.” (29) “The
non-sequitur lacked meaningful coherence” (ibid). See McGhee (1983) for more details. 57
Though, according to McGhee (1983), “not all right hemisphere patients show the behaviors described
[…]. These deficits are most common among patients with large lesions in the frontal areas of the right
hemisphere” (27).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
63
different regions than the left hemisphere.” (McGhee, 1983: 25) Such a feature would
importantly differentiate right from left hemisphere in humor comprehension making the
former58
“play a central role in producing awareness of incongruous relationships […].”
(27)59
The right hemisphere does play indeed a very important role in the comprehension
and appreciation of humor just because of the presence of more white matter. This extra
helps the right hemisphere better “perform the insightful integration of the key elements
of information that must be meaningfully linked before the humor can be understood and
appreciated.” (30) Such greater ability would also be proved to exist by the “greater
interconnectedness of neurons, [making] it better suited to perform this function than the
left hemisphere.” (ibid) This of course is not suggesting that, again, humor itself is
merely perceived by the right hemisphere, but conjunctly with the left one. In this regard,
Tucker (1981) suggests that “the human brain must be considered something of a binary
system, with two functionally differentiated information-processing subsystems.” (19) In
fact, according to McGhee (1983), once an individual hears or reads a joke, “incoming
information is continually related to what has been said and to what is expected to
follow” (30) by the left hemisphere. On the other hand, while one has to come to perceive
and understand an incongruity, the right hemisphere comes into play accomplishing such
58
However, as McGhee (1983) suggests, right-hemisphere patients “appear able to reach only the first of
the two stages of processing required for full appreciation of the humor depicted” (29), namely the IR two-
model stage. See Attardo (1997) for further details. Interestingly, “right-hemisphere damage may be most
disruptive of the ability to appreciate unfamiliar humor, while tending to leave intact memory for old
humor. This view was based on right-hemisphere patients’ ability to still tell previously memorized jokes
and to distinguish familiar foils (e.g., ‘Why did the chicken cross the road?’ ‘To get to the other side’) from
unfamiliar ones” (29). 59
However, according to McGhee (1983), right-hemisphere patients show to have lost such an awareness
showing “a severely disturbed sense of humor, including inappropriate laughter, inappropriate humor
production, and sharply reduced humor comprehension” (28) other than showing the impossibility of
detecting incongruous or out of the ordinary elements.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
64
a task.60
Interestingly, “increased joke complexity may reduce humor not so much
because the insightful integration of key elements is itself more difficult, but rather
because it places the individual in a predominantly analytical or left-hemisphere frame of
mind.” (McGhee, 1983: 32) In fact, according to Levine (1969), “understanding a joke is
an intellectual achievement, yet reflective thought destroys the humor” (1).
Conclusion
In this chapter we briefly introduced the idea of the difficulty of defining humor since
attempting to give an exhausting overview of the fields it covers would go well beyond
the limits of this thesis. We settled on the prelocutionary definition of Attardo &
Chabanne (1992) as a text intended to be perceived as funny. Similarly, we brought
attention to the existence of a plurality of humor theories while signaling the presence of
the one that was perceived as most useful for this thesis’s purpose, namely the relief
theory. The incongruous element was also briefly illustrated because it is relevant to the
foreign language learning process since it ought to lead to the mastery of higher cognitive
thinking skills. The introduction of humor was considered to be appropriate in advanced
levels of L2 learning by some researchers. Conversely, others thought its introduction to
be useful even at earlier stages of learning since it would bring more L2 culture
awareness. To better understand this phenomenon, humor was here investigated in
relation to the higher cognitive abilities it calls for in L1. Such examination brought this
writer to see certain similarities between L1 and L2 and the cognitive abilities both
languages require in order to perceive humor. Humor was also shown to involve both left
and right brain hemispheres, indicating its highly intellectual function.
60
However, there would be some hemispherical differences between man and women. See McGhee (1983)
for further details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
65
3. Humor in the Classroom
3.1 Advancing the Hypothesis
This writer hypothesizes that humor ought to greatly contribute to enhancing the learning
experience by transforming it into a positive stimulus,61
so as: 1) to maintain motivation
by avoiding if instances, and 2) to favor the ways Dornyei (1994a, 2001a) hypothesized
to be responsible for sustaining motivation.
Forabosco (1994) makes us aware that, by now, “[la] caratteristica dell’umorismo
è riuscire a trasformare fonti di dispiacere in fonti di piacere […]” (51) (A characteristic
of humor is being able to transform sources of displeasure into sources of pleasure).
Thus, this writer hypothesizes that since FLL is normally conceived as a threatening, not-
useful and an unpleasant experience, humor ought to transform it into a positive one. In
this way, individuals ought to look for it because they tend to reach their hedonistic
status. We also know that if the stimulus is not positive, then, Dornyei’s (2001b) process-
oriented model62
would not be successful; hence, learning would not be successful. In
other words, knowing that:
1) “Learning is […] more dependent upon motivation,” (Schumann, 1999: 39)
2) Motivation can be maintained by: a) avoiding if instances, and b) favoring those ways that
ought to sustain it
3) “Motivation is based on [positive] appraisal[s]” (35) that individuals tend to attribute to a
stimulus in order to consciously reach their hedonistic status
4) Positive appraisals63
depend on the pleasantness and the novelty of stimuli
61
However, some sort of boredom was detected during this writer’s investigation since the novelties soon
become the routine (as similarly mentioned while speaking of children; it seems in fact that continuous
presentation of the same object, or material in this case, leads to boredom. This is not a bad state of affairs
after all. See McGhee (1979) for further details). Not surprisingly, Berk (1998) points out that in 1997
“UCLA’s Higher Education Research Institute indicated in a national survey of more than 250, 000
freshman at nearly 500 universities that a 30-year-record high 35.6% of the student said that they were
frequently bored in class” (84). 62
See section 1.6.2. 63
According to Schumann (1999), “the [positive] feeling may cause the individual to attend to the stimulus,
to make an effort to comprehend and acquire information contained in the stimulus situation, and to revisit
the stimulus in the future to learn more.” (42) Neurologically speaking, such a “state is created in the body
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
66
5) Positive appraisals help the release of DA,64
responsible for learning
then teachers ought to introduce humor so that students would feel safe and satisfied.
Adams et al. (2001) indicate that “in this context, humor can be an empowerment tool
because it gives us a different perspective on our problems and, with protection and
control in our environment” (293). Humor gives us a certain degree of control over our
lives, allowing us to see the world from (a) different (humorous) angle(s) conceived as
disruptive by some old bores.
3.2 Risus Abundat In Ore Stultorum – Going Against the Old Bore
A long time ago, humor was considered to be unprofessional rather than entertaining. As
one can opine, such archaic views on humor have not yet changed much. Humor is still
seen superfluous to the intellectual learning experience.
There are teachers who still believe in the idea according to which being
humorous corresponds to being foolish, especially in an (intellectual) academic
environment. Hence, as Shade (1996) suggests, humor is considered to be “unscholarly”
(990) since the role of education is not to entertain, but to teach. In this regard, Korobkin
(1988) suggests that “traditional subject matter and lessons were supposed to keep
students interested. To entertain [did not mean] to educate” (154). He continued, in fact,
that students ought not to need any forms of entertainment in order to be interested in a
subject matter since the subject matter itself ought to keep them greatly interested, active
and motivated. Moreover, according to Morreall (1983):
proper via the autonomic nervous system, the endocrine system and the musculoskeletal system. This
bodily state is an emotion which is communicated back to the brain as a feeling that helps the individual
decide which mental or motor action to take with regard to the stimulus” (ibid). 64
See section 1.7.1.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
67
The traditional attitude of teacher toward laughter and humor […] has been that they are
frivolous activities that pull us away from what is important […]. Life is fundamentally
serious business – certainly whatever is important in life is serious business. If laughter
and humor had any place at all, then, it was not in the classroom but outside somewhere,
perhaps as a device for refreshing us to return to our work with more eagerness.
(Morreall, 1983: 88-89)
Morreall wants to convey the idea according to which humor would not be appropriate in
work environments (e.g., school or a business). Instead, humor’s only function would be
to help take a break from our duties so as to go back to work with renovated energies.
Again, since humor ought to regenerate our energies by moving the attention from one
focus (e.g., studying) to another (e.g., did you hear what happened today to Mr. X?), it
would be practically impossible to have both humor and learning concerned with a same
focus (e.g., L2 learning) since the attention is not gathered around one matter, but spread
to others simoultaneously. “If there is laughter in the classroom, then learning cannot
possibly be occurring” (ibid).
As a consequence, because of the aforementioned ethics, Shade (1996) suggests
that “we only tell certain jokes in certain circles […]. To some people, being a grownup
or an adult means acting sober, somber, earnest and serious at all times!” (35) In fact, the
one who produces humor in non-appropriate contexts (e.g., classroom) would show signs
of being immature. As Korobkin (1988) advocates, we ought to always show ourselves as
“serious professionals,” (154) thus, not “trivial, foolish, or ignorant” (ibid) in order to
keep a certain image of ourselves. Let’s not forget that “laughter, like crying, is the
body’s natural response to stress” (104) and let’s not forget that we live in a world whose
main features are stress and pessimism, as a matter of fact, “a pessimist forgets to laugh!”
(95) Let’s think then in laughing terms, let’s try for one time to treat laughter …
seriously. As Meyer (1997) suggests, “humor is pervasive in all human communication;
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
68
in meetings, in politics,65
at home, and at work, humor may be welcomed as a unifying
and relaxing force […]” (Meyer, 1997: 189). In other words, let’s go against the old bore.
Let’s fill our lives and all of it contexts (e.g., work place) with stimuli apt to reach one of
the most natural phenomena our mind undergoes, namely humor and laughter.
Wandarsee (1982) brings to our attention the fact that, luckily, “[today] the social
norms of schools have changed to recognize the value of an instructor who has a sense of
humor. Humor, if judiciously used, can enhance classroom learning.” (212) Not all the
teachers are old bores, but rather they recognize the helpfulness of humor (if well used) in
the classroom environment. As Korobkin (1988) advocates, credit needs to be given to
the fact that, “humor in an […] environment can create an atmosphere where learning can
flourish!” (91) Humor ought to create a more relaxed atmosphere where learning is
enhanced by humor’s powerful effects. In fact, “shared laughter is a powerful way to
reinforce learning, and it helps to make tasks less laborious and threatening” (154).66
If
one ought to laugh more because surrounded by laughing people, then, one ought to learn
more in an environment where everybody learn together.
However, humor’s use and employment is all up to the teacher. If teachers do
decide to use humor, he/she will have to ensure that this phenomenon has “[no] negative
associations that classify […] as mere misbehavior, as wasted time or as causing the loss
of face or credibility” (154). Whether we want it or not, humor could discredit the figure
of the teacher by making him/her look less credible, or less serious, leading to bad
65
For instance, Cook (2000) tells us about “the angry dueling exchange between Tony Blair and John
Major [which] was halted and defused by a humorous intervention from the Speaker of the House of
Commons, Betty Boothroyd: Order, order! I think there are a lot of members of this house who have got a
good deal of pre-electional tension. This intervention raised laughter from both sides, momentarily uniting
them in the joke. […] Boothroyd uses “pre-electional tension” to suggest the phase “pre-menstrual
tension”, often invoked by men to explain emotional and unreasonable outbursts by women” (72). 66
See also Ziv (1976) for further discussion.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
69
behaviors on behalf of the students. More importantly, Korobkin (1988) also suggests
that:
Teachers are in a position to create the kind of learning atmosphere that invites healthy
laughter over the humiliating laughter of derision. Only teachers are in a position to
encourage the kind of healthy clowning that adds to the sense of group cohesion rather
than detracting from it. And only teachers can establish classroom codes of behavior
which allow humor to become both a teaching tool and a skill which promotes the
enjoyment of learning (154).
We certainly cannot make someone learn, but we can more than certainly invite someone
to learning. We are hypothesizing here that humor ought to safely invite a student to
engage in a more relaxed learning experience, where there is not necessarily laughing at,
but laughing with as a way of teaching and learning by example.
If we think about it, one important element of humor is with no doubt intelligence
as much as creativity, leading some psychologists to believe that humor “is an
expression of creativity of even giftedness.” (ibid) They believe that the same paths used
to create humor or perceive humor involve the employment of high cognitive abilities
(e.g. language play as we will see). Thus, at this level, there is no reason for teachers to
fear the use of humor in teaching. On the contrary, managing successful resolution of an
incongruous element presented in an L2 learning context, namely the foreign language
classroom, the student will show to have mastered higher L2 cognitive thinking skills.67
Of course, there is not a right way to teach, and there is no right technique to apply to
teaching. Rather, there are good suggestions to employ in the field; humor ought to be
one of them.
A study reported by Wandarsee (1982) showed how students consider humor to
be a helpful tool:
67
However, as Forabosco (1994) suggests, incongruity could cause, "perplexity, curiosity, anxiety, [and]
fear [...]" (14).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
70
95% of the 270 students queried thought that humor helps to make presentation of
material more effective. Three main reasons […] were identified: 1) it eases the tension
between student and teacher and helps to establish rapport; 2) it maintains attention; and
3) it creates interest in the class68
(Wandarsee, 1982: 213).
After all, if humor worked for Sesame Street as a mean of “blend[ing it with] other
entertainment features [namely the television] with more formal educational content,”
(ibid) why should it not work in classrooms as well?69
3.3 Success of Humor in Hospitals and in Work Places
Humor proved to be successful in both hospital environments and in work place
environments. These positive occurrences support the idea that, if humor indeed worked
powerfully in these extremely busy and serious environments, it ought to work in
classroom environments as well. Classrooms are as serious as these, and humor if well
employed could be used in these settings to good effect.
3.3.1 Humor as Medicine of the Body
Psychoneuroimmunology, also known as the mind-body medicine70
is the new science
which aims to find some possible relations between the mind and the body. It seems
possible, according to Adams et al. (2001), that “a merry heart doeth good like a
medicine.” (281) In other words, what makes a person be happy is reached through the
use of humor.71
“Humor therapy is not a static regimen of memorized jokes and number
of chuckles per hour [but indeed] comes out when therapists decide to let their humorous
parts join the interaction with a patient.” (ibid) In other words, humor therapy is the effort
68
See also Ziv (1976) for further details. 69
Others disagree and point out that the evidence on the effectiveness of humor in the classroom is far from
being established. See Attardo (2005: personal communication). 70
See Micozzi (2001) for further details. 71
See also McGhee & Goldstein (1983 Vol. 2) and Robinson (1991) for further discussion.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
71
an individual employs in order to “put mirth into a patient encounter or hospital setting.”
(Adams et al., 2001: 284) The research on this new type of medicine has not yet received
much focus since most of the studies are still being carried out. Thus, such a new type of
remedy is relatively new to the field of medicine which vividly criticized this remedy as
much as all the new types of alternative medicine. Until 1970, medicine looked down on
humor considering it “unprofessional or uncaring or even as beneath the standard of care”
(291). With time though, the excitement created around this new issue has “broken down
many of the customary prejudices against humor, which have previously characterized
humor as frivolous, unimportant, or vulgar and reprehensible” (288). Above all, the
results have quieted all the bitterness sprinkled around by traditional medicine. In fact:
Many uses of the opportunity for using humor and mirthful laughter have been instituted
and operated successfully.72
Physician Patch Adams is one of the luminous pioneers in
this humor movement where humans attempt to improve the quality of their lives, both in
health and at times of diseases (ibid).
With Adams’s joy, the patients, their relatives and even the staff at the hospitals gave
totally positive feedback on humor73
therapy’s applications on both physiological74
and
neurological levels, keeping the program more than alive.
72
See also Cousins (1979). 73
Even here, not all the humor can be beneficial. In order to work, humor has to be carefully chosen. For
instance, according to Adams et al. (2001), humor must be applied in hospitals “with kindness,
compassion, and empathy. For the most part, humor in medical practice should take the form of gentle
amusement, twinkling eye contact, an only in the rarest situations, jokes.” (291) We have to remember that
each individual is different and consequently, humor varies “according to culture, age, ethnic, or economic
background, race, sex, and so on.” (290) Humor can beautifully create positive reactions, “but it can also
backfire and create alienation.” (292) See also Meyer (1997) for further details. Nurse Patty, mentioned in
Adams et al. (2001), shared a story happened to her and to two of her patients. The nurse reported the joke
created by her first patient related to a noticeable scar and its resemblance with “Market Street” (ibid) in
San Francisco, going “from Twin Peaks to the waterfront.” (ibid) Both the nurse and her first patient found
this joke amusing and laughed loudly. On the other hand, when the nurse used the same joke with the
second patient, who had a similar scar, she did not seem particularly enthusiastic about it. On the contrary,
the patient was totally offended by the joke. This tells us that we should first get to know our audience (or
patients) before telling any jokes. A hard thing to do in an educational environment! 74
Adams et al. (2001) “have been able to demonstrate significant impacts of mirth and mirthful laughter in
the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular, immune, endocrine, and central nervous systems.” (280) See also
Fry (1994) for further details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
72
For instance, Cousins (1979) showed the benefits of humor acting as a pain killer.
In this regard, Adams et al. (2001) reported two studies which were respectively carried
out by The Clemson nursing program and the Texas Tech Medical School.
The recipients of the first study were elderly people “in a long-term care facility”
(282) who were divided into two groups. One group watched a comedy video every night
for six weeks while the other watched a drama. After the patients watched the video, the
nurses asked who wanted an analgesic. “There were fewer requests for pain killers from
the comedy group” (ibid).
The recipients of the second study were similarly shown either comedy or serious
material for just 20 minutes while another group was given “relaxation therapy.” (ibid)
Once the researchers measure the pain thresholds of patients, using inflated blood
pressure cuffs, the recipients who watched the comedy material “had the greatest pain
tolerance of these groups” (ibid).
We live in a world dominated by isolation, depression, anxiety, and even
boredom. This should automatically lead us to think of humor as the best medicine to
fight against fear, frustration, unhappiness and anger. In this optic, Adams et al. (2001)
also maintain that:
Now humor and laughter, with new knowledge and new attitudes about their values and
benefits, increasingly spread their magic into areas of human experience that had
previously not been visualized as appropriate places for their presence [namely
workplaces and even classrooms (289).
The work of Adams et. al (2001) showed to be very useful in order to see humor, not as
an enemy, but rather as a beautiful tool placed at people’s disposal at any time in every
place, even in classrooms.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
73
3.3.2 Humor as Medicine of the Mind: No More Now Get Back to Work! Threats
Again, humor is a beautiful tool to employ in one’s life as a way to relieve one’s
psychological status. It ought to perfectly function as a mechanism of defense against the
unforgettable and harmful words in the work place, Now get back to work!
Humor would in fact help one better cope with the stressful situations75
one has to handle
while at work. Using Martin & Briggs’s words (1986), “a sense of humor permits one to
better cope with the aversive experiences of life” (63) which tend to take us down. This
means that the employment of humor, if well used, would help individuals take it easy in
life and its environments. One is, with no doubt, the work place where a lot of stress can
be accumulated. Humor can also be exploited as a marketing strategy or to persuade.
Interestingly, three studies have been carried out by Heinecke (1997), Meyer
(1997) and Lyttle (2001), on marketing, in a Community Children’s center and on
business ethics training, respectively. The studies illustrate how the varieties of types of
humor available can differently be employed in different work-place environments with
great effects.76
The study carried out by Heinecke (1997) simply grouped 10 of the most
successful examples in marketing which proved humor’s effectiveness in the field.
According to Heinecke (1997), humor proved to be an amazing effective tool if well
employed. One example that serves to illustrate humor’s power in the marketing field is
reported as follows:
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE); TICOR TITLE INSURANCE SALES APPOINTMENT
CAMPAIGN: It seems no one’s ever waiting to hear from insurance salespeople. But that
made no difference when 1,300 handpicked prospects received this simple personalized
75
See also Kuiper et al. (1995) for further details. 76
This further supports the idea according to which, the more careful the humor is employed in a specific
context or environment, the more positive and more significant the results.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
74
greeting card requesting on appointment. And the results? All 1,300 agreed to an
appointment! (Heinecke, 1997: 38)
Unfortunately, the photo that accompanied the humorous example could not be retrieved,
but luckily, Heinecke himself suggested to this writer the link
http://www.cartoonlink.com. Here, similar examples were found and are reported
below. Note that they can be personalized with the presumable buyer’s name (this
writer’s name and last name) as a way to additionally catch the attention of the customer.
"What I want you to do is swoop down to Elisa Sileoni over there, get
her to agree to our terms and fly right back here.”
"Folks, we'll get started just as soon as Elisa Sileoni gets here.”
The study carried out by Meyer (1997) showed how humor constituted an
ordinary daily occurrence among employees working as teachers at a Community
Children’s Center. The focus of the study was based on the analysis of “interactions
among staff members and encounters between staff and children.” (Meyer, 1997: 193)
The humorous narratives of 18 of the 20 staff members conveyed hints about: “(1) work
life in the organization, (2) good and bad events at work, (3) decision-making in the
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
75
organization, (4) conflict resolution,77
and (5) humorous events at work” (Meyer, 1997:
193). The staff was under examination through a set of 19 interviews carried out during a
period of eight weeks and followed an examination of the participants. The study brought
to our attention three significant results humor produced:
1) “Valuing a sense of fun” (204) was assessed by the workers who also perceived a more
pleasant environment to work in by recalling similar narratives which additionally
created an increase in cohesiveness and unity in the organization (other than reducing
stress and tension);
2) “Clear communication” (ibid) was an important value in the organization to
emphasize; though, the use of humor indicated any possible miscommunication be
considered as “no big deal” if not threatening. Hence, it showed, as Berger (1993)
suggests, “that problems of communication are enormous” (158). For instance, Mr. X
reminds Mr. Y to pick up Mr. X at 8pm (of the following day). If Mr. Y is momentarily
inattentive, Mr. Y will not get that the pick up is for tomorrow, and not for that same day.
Thus, Mr. Y will risk waiting endlessly for Mr. X on that same day.
3) Children’s awareness of teachers’ harmless superiority was the last result humor
produced. Teachers laughed at children’s mistakes, without ridiculing them (e.g., Ha ha,
no, it is not goed, but went. Repeat: went)
The last experiment,78
carried out by Lyttle (2001) in the classroom setting, used
“persuasion theory”79
as a way to determine the actual effectiveness of humor responsible
77
In fact, humor would not only unify members, but also divide them. See Meyer (1997) for further details. 78
The experiment was exclusively concerned with the ethics awareness training meant to, 1) make workers
more sensible toward events which might have ethical consequences, and to 2) encourage them to consult
the offices in charge of these situations. 79
According to this theory, “people who are in a good mood are less likely to disagree with a persuasive
message” (Lyttle, 2001: 207).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
76
for “increasing liking of the source” (Lyttle, 2001: 207) and “[increasing] trust in the
source” (208). During the experiment, which used Dilbert’s comic strip, the 148
participants, between the ages of 18 and 20, had to answer to the issue proposed80
by
choosing one of the five possible answers available.81
In the four mini-cases created, the
answers either 1) fully included ironic wisecracks as the fifth additional choice, 2) or
included wisecracks but not Dilbert’s drawings offering the fifth choice “I prefer not to
answer”, 3) or included Dilbert’s drawings but lacked wisecracks having as the fifth
choice a drawing of Zeus on the very right corner of the page and a small arrow, 4) or
included neither Dilbert’s drawing nor wisecracks, but had the figure of Zeus, the small
arrow, and the response “I prefer not to answer.” The results showed that for each case,
“removing all the humor reduced the gain score for reported intention to consult the
Ethics Office”, (211-12), “removing the cartoons reduced the gain score for reported
intention to consult the Ethics Office,” (212) “removing the wisecracks reduced the gain
score for reported intention to consult the Ethics Office,” (ibid) and at last “removing
either wisecracks or the cartoons reduced the gain score for reported intention to consult
the Ethics Office.” (ibid) Thus, the results empirically supported82
the view of humor as a
persuasive mean.
80
“Your work in a purchasing department and have been asked to select a vendor for an upcoming
purchase. One of the competing companies is owned by your manager’s spouse. Your manager told you
that she wants you to make the decision all on your own, and to take care not to give any extra
consideration to her husband’s bid. In your judgment, the husband’s bid has the best value. How are you
going to handle this?” (Lyttle, 2001: 209) 81
“(a) select the husband’s bid and make the purchase, (b) talk to the Legal Department, (c) tell your
manager you’re uncomfortable making this decision without first discussing it with the Ethics Office, and
(d) select the second best bid and make the purchase.” The fifth response (wisecrack) is “Try to break up
the marriage” (Lyttle, 2001: 209). 82
Even though the results were very small. Additionally, the experiment lightened the differences among
the different types of humor. Visual humor would in fact be less effective if presented on its own. On the
other hand, the humor that involves listeners was proved to be the most effective of all.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
77
Not surprisingly, the three studies supported the ideas of positive humor’s
applications in the workplace even though it was employed for different purposes and in
different contexts; but again, if it worked in hospitals and in work places, it ought to
presumably work in the foreign language classrooms as well.
3.4 The Usefulness of Instructional Humor
We have seen that humor has a beneficial impact in hospital and work environments. We
suggest, by analogy, to apply instructional humor in the classrooms. Instructional humor
ought to teach by example, without diminishing the focus placed on learning. In fact,
according to Berger (1993), “the use of appropriate instructional humor seems to enhance
learning” (158) rather than diminish the value and function of the learning experience.
Additionally, it seems to help students with new material83
thought to be, as Shade (1996)
suggests, “a threatening experience” (73).
As a consequence, instructional humor was the type of humor chosen by this
writer because it was thought to be the best humor a teacher could possibly employ in the
classroom. Instructional humor can be defined as the type of humor considered to be
relevant to the learning experience.84 However, it needs to be pointed out that in every
83
In fact, as Shade (1996) suggests, “humor [appears to be] especially effective when introducing new
material” (73). 84
In this regard, Ziv (1988a) carried out two experiments on humor in teaching and learning in higher
education programs. “The first study used relevant humor in a one-semester statistics course in an
experimental group and no humor in a control group. One hundred sixty-one students participated, and the
results showed significant differences between the two groups in favor of the group learning with humor.
[…] The second experiment was a replication of the first one, using 132 students in a one-semester
introductory psychology course. The students (all females) were divided randomly into two groups. Humor
was used in one, and the same teacher taught the second group without using humor. Again, significant
differences were found: The group studying with humor in teaching can influence student learning are
given” (5).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
78
type of humor there is an element of risk involved (e.g., a student might feel offended by
a joke no matter how careful the teacher is).
This writer thought that by using instructional humor (as opposed to any humor
delivered spontaneously in a bona-fide context or considered by Berk 1998 as high-risk),
students have the chance of recalling the grammar rule they are required to learn by
associating it with the joke that contained it (even though this joke had not necessarily
produced laughter or enjoyment). In other words, the employment of humor would help
students make associations between the funny joke and the new rule encountered as a
way to remember it. Interestingly, the employment of humor in the classroom
environment is shown to better work (Hill, 1988) if related to the material that is being
taught to the students.
This writer is not the only one who emphasizes such a belief. Korobkin (1988)
notices that “instructional changes are occurring and being encouraged in the college
[classrooms]” (155). In this regard, Hill (1988) advocates that instructional humor eases
“concept learning where anecdotes can facilitate comprehension [but not only as we will
see later]” (21).85
Jokes tell a story and usually listeners recall a familiar situation to
them.
The old study carried out by Kaplan & Pascoe (1977) and the two studies carried
out by Ziv (1988a) showed that statistically significant positive effects of humor were
detected by those students exposed to the humorous lessons. For this reason, this writer
hopes to be replicating such results as a way to support the research and applications in
this field.
85
See section 2.4.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
79
3.4.1 A Quick Sketch of Humor’s Benefits in Education
A great deal of benefits for humor’s applications in education86
have been listed in the
humor literature tending to additionally and non-indispensably 1) spread the matter rather
than shrinking it to few inclusive concepts, and 2) create repetition and redundancy.
Of course, overabundance and space did not permit listing them all,87
although a
very exhausting listing was furnished by Korobkin (1988) as a way to present the main
ideas on humor’s capabilities88
and effects on the learning experience – and on the
psychological level of course.
According to Korobkin (1988), humor in education would presumably increase:
- retention of material
- student-teacher rapport
- attentiveness and interest
- motivation towards and satisfaction with learning
- playfulness and positive attitude
- individual and group task productivity
- class discussion and animation
- creativity, idea generation, and divergent thinking”
On the other hand, humor would decrease:
- academic stress
- anxiety toward subject matter
- dogmatism
- class monotony” (155)
It should be stressed that Korobkin (1988) implicitly assumes that the benefits have not
been proven to actually exist. Until research confirms them, it would be irresponsible to
encourage teachers to introduce them in the classroom (Attardo, 2005: personal
communication).
86
However, as Hill (1988) suggests, humor is not a replacement for repetition as a teaching methodology,”
21) but it is rather a strategy to use to get students involved (i.e., motivated) with the learning experience. 87
This is somehow similar to the dozens of theories developed around the subject matter of motivation in
chapter 1. 88
Let’s not forget humor’s important social function. See Morreal (1983), Berger (1993), Fry (1994) and
Allen (1989) for more details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
80
3.5 Humor in the Foreign Language Classroom: The Benefits
There is no need to bring research to support the idea according to which college and
adult students perceive a certain degree of anxiety due to academic pressure. However,
this writer would like to point out that during her current tutoring sessions, the 36- year-
old tutee said “you know, there is no pressure now” several times. She wanted to convey
the idea that, according to her, learning a foreign language is now a more positive
experience because there is no pressure dictated by the curriculum.
Such anxiety is shown generally by those students who find themselves seated in
a foreign language classroom in order to fulfill their general requirements, make it to the
graduation ceremony and get employed.89
In this regard, humor is conceived, by Oxford
& Shearin (1994), as a mean of making “the L2 classroom a welcoming, positive place
where psychological needs are met and where language anxiety is kept to a minimum”
(Oxford & Shearin, 1994: 24).
At a more material level, humor would be particularly useful in the foreign
language classroom since it ought to involve higher cognitive thinking90
activities among
which, hypothetically speaking, we see included: evaluation of stimulus, language play,
and retention of material– especially new material – and its consequent recall.
With regards to the retention of material, and similarly to what has been earlier
said on instructional humor, humor ought to enhance the retention of material when this
89
More in particular, Schumann (1999) indicates that Anglophone North Americans “generally have no
need to learn a foreign language beyond very limited school requirements frequently find an unpleasant
appraisal of the language learning situation sufficient reason to abandon the enterprise” (76). For instance,
student X enrolled in this writer’s Spring 2005 IT 2600 course (M-W-R-F, 8am-8.50am), after earning a
low grade, made negative appraisals and decided to abandon the enterprise. 90
Thus, a student’s affective filters must be low if this occurs. See Krashen (1985) for further details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
81
same material is presented, through humor, to the students who find it relevant.
Therefore, humor showed to be relevant to both the students’ interests (paying attention
to what humor involves) and, as Shade (1996) suggests, “to the academic content trying
to avoid all possible distractions” (5). As a consequence, Shade (1996) maintains that:
Humor may act as a catalyst and allow for unusual juxtapositions and connections to be
made between various items of information. Therefore, it may enhance the storage of
information by providing a necessary context into which seemingly unrelated items can
be better organized. Humor may also increase the information retrieval process by
providing specific, easy-to remember retrieval cues that can be stored along with material
to be learned (74).
Again, humor can help the students make connections between the humorous element(s)
and the grammar rule(s) as a way to 1) give more sense to the learning material, and 2)
organize in memory a specific language rule (e.g., Italian double pronouns te la)
which is apparently different from another one (e.g., Italian definite article la). If the
storage (or organization) is enhanced, perhaps its recall is as well, simply speaking, by
recalling the image of the humorous joke that contained the grammar rule, both stored in
memory. In fact, according to Perret (1984), with humor:
A funny image appears in the mind of the listener [since] the real joke is in the image that
each person sees. […] Most memory systems convert abstract ideas to familiar images
because they are impressed upon the mind more easily and are retained longer [thus
recalling would be eased]. (12-13)
Humor’s recipients, according to Perret (1984), create their own images in their minds
that best represent the joke heard as a way of facilitating its retention and consequently its
recall (e.g., if a recipient hears a joke about two persons falling off a building, the
recipient will have in mind the image of the actual two persons falling off of it). Using
Shade’s words (1996), retention is increased by using humor as “a sort of visual
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
82
mnemonic91
device” (105) which is employed to promote the creation of images in our
minds. Consequently, efficient storage of information will give the student the
opportunity to recall the items in storage related to the foreign language by consciously
selecting the most appropriate ones. McDonough (1981) suggests that by doing this,
learners will be able to “reconstruct and revive meanings and material given in the
foreign language.” (70)92
In this regard, Cook (2000) suggests that people tend to recall
certain wording not made up of “the mundane discourse of everyday life, […] but those
marked by unusual, elevated […] language, those reinforced by parallel structures such as
rhythm and rhyme […].” (199) In other words, we tend to recall more easily those texts
which differ from the ones our ears are used to. Thus, this writer postulates that a slightly
strange text (but not too strange) might help the recall.
Thus, the function of language play would constitute one of the triggers
responsible for laughter and more in particular a specific form of humor.93
If I say,
“trentatrè trentini entrarono a Trento tutti e trentatrè troterellando” I will likely create
some sort of reaction in the recipient (e.g., perception of the alliteration) which could be
positive, such as a smile, or even negative, such as frustration. Hedonistically speaking,
playing with language tends to be generally positive, and tends to decrease anxiety and
enhance the language learning. According to Cook (2000) there is a general acceptance
that play of a non-competitive kind is a way of inducing a friendly and relaxed
atmosphere.” (183) Moreover, play is not a “sin.” (203) On the contrary, it is an
91
If memory’s item recall is more easily attained, than an individual is more motivated and less frustrated
because he/she will more likely forget the material. It is also true that the number of items recalled in
another language is, as McDonough (1981) suggests, “slightly smaller” (62) depending on what is being
recalled. Thus, humor, if well employed, ought to help store the information in memory in a more
organized manner. See McDonough (1981) and Hill (1988) for more details. 92
According to McDonough 1981, recall is eased not only by recalling images, but also by recognizing
“similarity” (63) and “frequency” (64) of words. 93
See Broner & Tarone (2001) for more details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
83
intellectual act the mind produces (as much as humor is)94
which seems to be effective in
language teaching95
and in language learning in particular. Play’s benefits would be
several:
1) It is assumed that play would be meant “for relaxation or stimulation”
(Cook, 2000: 124) or, in other words, “to burn off energy.” (ibid)
Recalling the term hedonic, human beings look for pleasure (rather than
pain) thus engaging in (any) form of play that would help the individual
reach the pleasurable element needed to keep internal (i.e., mental) and
external (i.e., physical) equilibrium.
2) Play is determinant in social interactions. More importantly,
3) play is determinant in first language acquisition. Thus, this writer
hypothesizes that it ought to be determinant in second language learning
as well. In fact, as Cook (2000) suggests, “the notion that play is
something which appears only at the later stages of language acquisition is
believed by children’s first language acquisition, and by a growing
literature on the popularity and spontaneous appearance of language play
at early stages of second language learning.” (204)96
If children have not
yet mastered cognitive skills (responsible for any higher thinking), then
these same children would not be able to engage in play, considered to be,
94
I.e., once we come to master the ability of playing with L2 words creating laughter, or in other words,
when we can perceive humor as a form of intellectual exploitation meant to help the L2 learner. Nolan
(2000) indicates that “absurd humor, non-sense, and wordplay are examples of intellectual humor;” (35) as
much as language play is. 95
Though, play cannot be intended as “play as learning” (Cook, 2000: 182), but as “a play element in
learning” (ibid). We do not want to disrupt the traditional strategies employed in a curriculum, but we
cannot certainly neglect the existence of that “pleasurable” (193) activity which is play. Let’s not forget
that the word school comes from “the Greek for leisure” (203). 96
See Broner & Tarone (2001) for further details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
84
again, an intellectual act. Piaget’s theory of human’s cognitive
development speculates that such intellectual acts begin at age 11 (during
the Formal Operational Stage), when L1 acquisition is very much
advanced. Similarly, play would be possible in L2 learning when L2 is
vastly developed to permit any form of play. It is true that,
4) play would additionally stimulate creative thinking (through creative
thinking children start mastering cognitive abilities) leading to word play.
A very good example that supports this idea is the one maintained by
Cook (2000) related to the fact that any person who learned L2 efficiently
is able to engage in creative thinking and is able to deliver it (through a
joke or a story) and would also be able to buy an airline ticket. On the
other hand, we do not take for granted that any individual who is able to
buy an airline ticket (using L2) is also able to tell a joke – or a story. In
other words, if a learner manages to play with words, it means that he/she
has reached a certain proficient97
knowledge of the language he/she is
using (either L1 or L2); thus the learner has reached a more elevated
thinking capacity. Additionally,
5) play would be a more receptive and complete process meant to keep
language’s competence and performance strictly connected. In other
words, play would create a connection between the “formal” language and
its “social and psychological uses.” (175) In this regard, such optimal play
would help the L2 learner learn the proper grammar rules of the target
language, but also understand the values and beliefs of the L2 community
97
Though, Cook (2000) suggests that “play […] can take place at all levels of proficiency” (204).
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
85
(often forgotten by teachers) as a way of stimulating and enhancing
learner’s motivation toward the learning experience which often takes
place in the classroom environment - rather than outside of it. Ultimately,
6) play, a “resembling and ordered game,” (Cook, 2000: 184) would help
the learner accept the figure of the teacher, together with the acceptance of
those “regulative rules” (185) which are “imposed and enforced,
sometimes against the will of those involved, but they are not essential to
the identity of the activity” (ibid). For instance, tasks are given to students
so that they would practice the new material they encountered. However,
if they do not engage in the tasks, they are still students enrolled in the
foreign language classroom. Thus, play would be meant not only to accept
and submit to the figure of the teacher, but also to accept the rules
involved with learning (it is like reading out loud the instructions
contained in the box of a board game so that all the participants are aware
of the rules).
In order to perceive an experience, a social situation or an educational one
favorably (or possibly negatively), individuals evaluate stimuli which, according to
Schumann (1999), “lead to an emotional response” (28). We all perceive stimuli which
act all around us to produce all sorts of reactions. As Adams et al. (2001) suggest, it is the
individual himself/herself who decides to perceive a situation as threatening or
challenging. The scale they adopt to positively evaluate a stimulus is principally based, as
Schumann et al. (2004) advocate, “[on] novelty, pleasantness, and relevance to the
individual’s goals or needs […].” (25) If a joke is told and is perceived as either
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
86
entertaining (because it produces a pleasurable effect which will help an individual
engage in a specific behavior), new (because for instance it is incongruous) or of interest
to an individual (as to be determinant for his own goals or needs), then this individual
will more likely make positive appraisals (Schumann, 1999).
In terms of foreign language learning, Schumann (1999) points out that “positive
appraisals […] enhance language learning and negative appraisals inhibit second
language learning” (32). Such statements are largely supported by studies undergone on
motivation, “diary studies and autobiographies of second language learners” (ibid) and is
also mentioned before in chapter 1.98
Hence, the exploitation of humor ought to create
positive reactions increasing language learning by humor’s recipients.
Conclusion
Humor’s positive effects were shown in studies undertaken in hospitals and in businesses
(other than the work places) which hint at laughter’s effectiveness. If laughter worked in
these places it ought to work in the classrooms as well – as long as appropriate humor is
employed. In this regard, instructional humor, as opposed to any high-risk humor, seemed
to be the most appropriate form of humor available in classrooms to ease learning.
Humor would seem to have specific benefits that Korobkin (1988) exhaustedly grouped
even though they have not been proven to actually exist until research confirms them.
Additionally, humor ought to have cognitive benefits if applied to the foreign language
classroom, namely retention and recall of material, language play and evaluation of
stimuli. The latter would be the key responsible for motivation. According to this writer’s
98
See section 1.7.1.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
87
hypothesis earlier proposed in this thesis, when a positive appraisal is made, an individual
engages in behaviors likely to reach a fixed goal.
In conclusion, since humor that is evaluated positively seems to be associated
with positive feelings and bodily reactions, it stands to reason that introducing humor in
the classroom should extend these positive apperceptions to the totality of the classroom
experience, including the materials being taught. It should be stressed, to ward off
potential misunderstandings, that all the research linking positive effects to humor in the
classroom is inconclusive (Attardo, 2005: personal communication). At best, we can hope
that humor’s pleasant associations will rub off, so to speak, on the classroom experience.
Any further claims remain speculative at this time. In particular, no evidence has been
advanced causally linking humor and learning.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
88
4. Presenting the Experiment
The present experiment was done as a way to determine humor’s true effectiveness on
motivation in foreign language learning.
4.1 The Hypothesis
Based on the literature presented toward the end of chapter three, humor should enhance
students’ foreign language learning by helping the students themselves evaluate
positively the FLL experience. Such positiveness would instigate the initiation of
positively motivated behaviors apt to consequently engage in the accomplishment of their
final goal/s (e.g., pass the foreign language course). Concretely, this means that it was
hypothesized that the use of humor in the classroom would
1. increase learning, measured by test scores
2. increase motivation over time
4.2 Method
4.2.1 Subjects
The subjects involved in this study were students at Youngstown State University (YSU),
Youngstown, OH, enrolled in an intermediate Italian foreign language course (IT 2600)
in the Fall 2004. During this period, this writer taught both intermediate courses which
covered chapters 10-18 of Lazzarino et al. (2002): course (a) (control group) went from
August 23 through December 1, every Monday and Wednesday, 6.10pm-7.50pm, for 15
weeks; course (b) (experimental group) went from August 23 through December 3, every
Monday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday, 11.00am-11.50am, for 15 weeks. The 15
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
89
students involved were between the ages of 18-55. The control group was composed of 4
students; the experimental group was composed of the remaining 11 even though only 8
were present at the time the surveys were given. None of them were Italian majors.
4.2.2 Design: Keller’s Model
In order to establish humor’s effectiveness, students’ motivation was measured through
the employment of CIS (Course Interest Survey), designed by Keller (1993) with a
theoretical foundation represented by the ARCS model.
The study measured motivation by using four variables, according to Keller (1987),
responsible for human motivation, namely attention (A), relevance (R), confidence (C),
and satisfaction (S). These four factors, defined by Keller’s ARCS99
model, would in fact
cause an individual “to become and remain motivated” (3). In order to measure these four
conditions, the Course Interest Survey (CIS) was created in order to assess students’
motivation with reference to a specific course. The CIS was appropriately validated and
measured by Keller (1993). Reliability estimates based on Cronbach's alpha measure
were obtained for each subscale and the total scale. They were:
Attention: .84 Confidence: .81 Total Scale: .95
Relevance: .84 Satisfaction: .88
Scores on the CIS were correlated with course grade and with grade point average. The
results are reported in Table 4 as shown in the next page:
99
The ARCS model was originally developed by Keller (1987) with the purpose of indicating the strategies
to employ in instruction - rather than shaping behaviors. Interestingly, humor would appear to constitute a
useful strategy to be employed in the classroom as a mean to enhance attention. See Keller (1987) for more
details.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
90
Table 4
Course Grade Point Average
Attention .19 .01
Relevance .43 .08
Confidence .51 .01
Satisfaction .49 .03
Total Score .47 .04
As Keller (1993) indicates:
All of the correlations with course grade are significant at or beyond the .05 level, and
none of the correlations with grade point average are significant at the .05 level. This
supports the validity of the CIS as a situation specific measure of motivation, and not as a
measure of general motivation for school learning” (2).
CIS consists of 34 statements whose response scale ranges from 1 to 5 (1= Not
true; 5= Very true). Reverse items were included and which restated scales in a negative
manner (1= Very true; 5= Not true). Two alternate scoring methods were available to the
researcher in order to examine the CIS: 1) reporting the scores in terms of factors
(ARCS) and total score, 2) averaging the scores in terms of ARCS and a total score.
The first possibility is accomplished by summing the scores for each subscale
(ARCS) to set the total score. The minimum score on the 34 item survey is 34, and the
maximum is 170, with a midpoint of 102. The minimum, maximum, and midpoint for
each subscale vary because they do not all have the same number of items.
The second possibility for scoring is finding the average score for each subscale
and the total. For each respondent, the total score on a given scale was divided by the
number of items in that scale. This converts the totals into a score ranging from 1 to 5 and
makes it easier to compare performance on each of the subscales.
The latter was preferred by this writer because since there are different numbers
of questions in each section, this results in a standardized score.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
91
4.2.3 Materials
The material (instructional humor) presented to the students throughout the course was
comprised of 51 jokes (plus an image to conclude the series) which were used throughout
the intermediate Italian courses. The jokes were grammatically connected to the material
the curriculum asked to cover during the 15 weeks. Some of the jokes were modified by
this writer as best as she could in order not to offend any of the students’ backgrounds
and to better fit this writer’s exigencies. Some of the jokes had references to the Italian
culture and habits and were not considered, by this writer, an Italian native herself, to be
offensive to the Italian ethnicity. Moreover, some of the jokes were employed more than
once because they seemed to fit different contexts.
Most of the jokes were picked from Ragusa & Roversi (2002). Some others come
from the Italian web sites www.barzellette.it and www.bastardidentro.com and are
reproduced below:
CAPITOLO 10
Futuro Semplice
(Ragusa & Roversi, 37)
Questa e’ la strascrizione di una autentica conversazione via radio tra due navi avvenuta il 10 ottobre 1995.
NAVE 1 Per favore, dovrete deviare la vostra rotta 15 gradi a nord o non potrete evitare una collisione.
NAVE 2 Vi consigliamo di deviare la vostra rotta di 15 gradi a sud o non potrete evitare una collisione.
NAVE 1 E’ il capitano che vi parla. Ve lo ripeto: dovrete deviare la vostra rotta.
NAVE 2 No. Ripeto, siete voi che dovrete deviare la vostra rotta.
NAVE 1 Questa è la portaerei Xxx. Siamo dotati di tre Destroyers, tre Cruiser e numerosi vascelli di scorta.
Vi chiedo di deviare la vostra rotta di 15 gradi a nord o saremo costretti a prendere adeguate contromisure
che garantiranno l’integrità della nave.
NAVE 2 Questo è il faro. Passo e chiudo.
(Ragusa & Roversi, 45)
- Ora ti racconterò una barzelletta che ti ucciderà dalle risate.
- No, no ti prego, sono troppo giovane per morire.
Usi speciali del futuro
(Ragusa & Roversi, 164)
Mia adorata Sara,
ti amo più di quanto le parole possano dire. Per questo ti scrivo che per provare il mio amore sarò pronto a
scalare le vette più alte del mondo, per te attraverserò i deserti più desolati e le lande piú fredde del Polo
Nord.
Ti amo.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
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P.S. Verrò a prenderti domenica se non piove.
Si impersonale
(Ragusa & Roversi, 20)
Alcuni credono che si debba prendere cura degli amici.
Alcuni credono che si debba prendere cura delle persone che appartengono allo stesso club.
Alcuni pensano che si debba prendere cura solo di se stessi.
Altri ancora pensano che sia compito del governo.
(Ragusa & Roversi, 264)
Una contadina va nel pollaio, mostra un uovo di struzzo alle galline e dice: - E’ così che si lavora, cocche!
(barzellette.it)
Due cani si incontrano:
“Bau!”
“Miao!”
“Miao?! Come sarebbe a dire Miao??!!”
“Ma non lo sai? Al giorno d’oggi si è spacciati se non si conoscono almeno due lingue!”
Formazione dei nomi femminili
(barzellette.it)
Un tizio va dal dottore e chiede: "avete dell'acido acetilsalicidico?"
Il farmacista risponde: "Vuol dire dell'aspirina?"
E il tizio: "Si...mi scordo sempre il nome!!!"
CAPITOLO 11
Usi di ne
(bastardidentro.com)
Un signore di nome Franco sta prestando servizio di sicurezza presso il mercato, vede un vecchietto sopra
un camion pieno di mele che le sta sbucciando e mette in un sacchetto i semi. Incuriosito Franco gli chiede:
“Mi dica, perché raccoglie i semi?”
L’uomo del camion sicuro di se:
“Ma lei non lo sa che i semi delle mele sviluppano l’intelligenza!?”.
Franco sempre più incuriosito gli chiede:
“E che cosa se ne fa poi dei semi? Li vende?”.
E l’uomo: “Certamente!”.
“E quanto costano?”
“5euro l’uno!”.
“OK! Voglio provarli: me ne dia tre”.
L’uomo prende 15 euro da Franco e consegna i tre semi. Franco se li mangia e poi pensa ad alta voce:
“Accidenti! Ma con 15 euro mi compravo 20kg di mele, le sbucciavo ed avevo molti più semi”.
E l’uomo: “Vede? E’ già diventato più intelligente di prima!”.
“Ha ragione! Me ne dia altri tre...”
Usi di ci
(Ragusa & Roversi, 153)
Un giovane entra in un bar e ordina da bere.
Arriva un altro giovane e si siede accanto a lui. Dopo qualche bicchiere, il primo dice: - Tu hai l’aria di
venire dalla cittàdi Xxx.
- Infatti vengo da lì.
- L’occasione merita una bevuta!
E bevono.
- Il secondo chiede: - E tu di che città sei?
- Vengo dalla città di Xxx.
- Anch’io! Beviamo!
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
93
E bevono.
- E in quale zona sei nato?
- Dietro la stazione.
- Anche’io ci sono nato!
E bevono un’altra volta.
- In che via?
- Via del Corso!
- Anch’io ci vivo!
E bevono.
- A che numero?
- 20.
- Anch’io!
Bevono e bevono ancora. In quel momento, squilla il telefono. Il barista risponde e dice : - Si. Gli affari
vanno benino. I gemelli Rossi si stanno ubriacando un’altra volta.
(Ragusa & Roversi, 156)
Quanti italiani ci vogliono per cambiare una lampadina?
Due. Uno per cambiare la lampadina e l’altro per grattugiarci sopra il parmigiano.
Pronomi doppi
(Ragusa & Roversi, 86)
Un signore va in chiesa a confessarsi.
- Mi perdoni padre perché ho peccato.
- Dimmi figliolo, qual’è il tuo peccato?
- Durante la guerra, ho tenuto nascosto un uomo in soffitta.
- Questo non è un peccato. Anzi, è un’opera buona che merita il paradiso!
- No, padre, invece credo proprio di aver commesso un peccato. Vede...mi sono fatto pagare da questa
persona 200.000 mila lire al giorno.
- Bè..potevi farne a meno...Comunque l’hai fatto per una giusta causa.
- Allora mi assolve?
- Certo!
- Un’altra domanda, padre...
- Dimmi figliolo...
- Pensa che dovrei dirglielo che la guerra sia finita?
(Ragusa & Roversi, 135)
Un gobbo legge su un giornale un annuncio: “Medico guarisce tutte le malattie”. Pieno di speranza, l’uomo
va da questo dottore.
- Dottore, davvero guarisce tutte le malattie?
- Certo.
- Anche la gobba?
- Sicuro!
Detto fatto, il medico prende con le mani la gobba e gliela toglie. Entusiasta, il gobbo corre da un suo
amico zoppo e gli racconta dell’accaduto. Lo zoppo va immediatamente dal medico prodigioso
Appena lo vede, il medico gli chiede: - Anche tu hai la gobba?
- No...
- Eccotela!
E gliela attacca.
Imperativo (tu)
(Ragusa & Roversi, 12)
Una ragazza al cinema: - Togli le mani dalla mia spalla! No...non tu. TU!!!
CAPITOLO 12
Aggettivi indefiniti
(Ragusa & Roversi, 102)
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
94
Un’alpinista sta scalando una montagna. A un certo punto, scivola e ruzzola lungo un ripido crinale. Per
fortuna riesce a fermarsi proprio sul bordo di un burrone profondo duemila metri. Cosciente che non
riuscirà mai a risalire, l’alpinista comincia ad urlare.
- Aiuto! C’è qualche persona che può aiutarmi?
Nessuna risposta.
Urla più forte: - Aiuto! C’è qualche persona che può aiutarmi???
A questo punto risponde una voce possente: - Sì. Ci sono io.
- Aiutami per favore, sto precipitando. Ma dove sei? Non ti vedo!
- Non mi vedi perché sono Dio. Ora calmati e fa’ come ti dico: buttati nel burrone e io manderò due angeli
a prenderti al volo.
L’alpinista rimane immobile, poi urla: - C’è qualche altro???
(Ragusa & Roversi, 107)
- Ho delle notizie da darti.
- Comincia dalla buona.
- Sono tutte e due cattive.
(Ragusa & Roversi, 119)
Un gruppo di amici è in giro per la città e dice ad alcuni amici: - Guardate, sta arrivando mio padre.
- Dov’è?
- E’ quello che ha in mano un sacchetto della spesa.
- Ci sono tre uomini che arrivano con i mano un sacchetto della spesa, Marco – dice Luca.
- E’ quello con la maglia gialla.
- Tutti e tre hanno la maglia gialla.
- E’ quello con il cappello.
- Tutti e tre hanno il cappello.
- E’ quello con i baffi neri e la cinta nera.
- Tutti e tre hanno i baffi neri e la cinta nera.
A questo punto il Marco prende un sasso per strada e lo tira al padre e dice: “E’ quello dolorante con la
mano in testa, Luca!!!.
Pronomi indefiniti
(Ragusa & Roversi, 126)
- Dottore, quali funghi si possono mangiare?
- Tutti. Ma alcuni si mangiano una sola volta.
Negativi
(bastardidentro.com)
La moglie al marito: “Tesoro perché non giochi mai a pallone con i bambini?
Il marito: “Perché non rimbalzano bene”..
(Ragusa & Roversi, 19)
Lei: - Caro, preferisci le donne belle o quelle intelligenti?
Lui: - Non preferisco né l’une né l’altre, amore mio. Io preferisco te!
Imperativo (Lei)
(Ragusa & Roversi, 12)
Una ragazza al cinema: - Tolga le mani dalla mia spalla! No...non lei. LEI!!!
CAPITOLO 13
Condizionale presente
(Ragusa & Roversi, 19)
La mamma legge una favola al figlio per addormentarlo.
- Mamma, potresti smettere di leggere? Vorrei dormire.
Dovere, potere e volere al condizionale
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
95
(Ragusa & Roversi, 13)
In un cinema c’è un tipo stravaccato lungo tre sedili. Passa l’uomo delle bibite e gli chiede: - Cosa
vorrebbe? Un’Aranciata, una Coca-Cola?
- Un’ambulanza, sono caduto dalla galleria.
(Ragusa & Roversi, 204)
- Mi chiamo Pa... Pa... Pa... Pa... Paolo.
- Potrei chiamarti solo Paolo?
(Ragusa & Roversi, 102)
Alla dogana, il doganiere domanda: - Lei ha armi?
- No.
- Alcool?
- No.
- Droga?
- No.
- ...Ne Vorrebbe?
Condizionale passato
(known by this writer)
Ci sono due persone nel deserto che strisciano sulla sabbbia assetati piú che mai e improvvisamente vedono
un signore che vende bevande e gli chiedono: “Due aranciate!” e l’uomo: “Mi dispiace, ma non ne ho piú”
e si allontana pensando “Magari avrebbero preferito due chinotti....”
(Ragusa & Roversi, 257)
Una sera di un tranquillo giorno, un uomo entró in un bar in grande ritardo.
- Ho fatto a testa o croce per decidere se venire o meno. Testa, sarei venuto. Croce, sarei rimasto a casa.
- Ma sei arrivato in ritardo!
- Sí. Ho lanciato la moneta per mezzora ed erano tutte croci....
Pronomi possessivi
(Ragusa & Roversi, 120)
Un uomo va dal barbiere e chiede: - Quanti prima di me?
Il barbiere risponde: - Cinque.
L’uomo va via, torna l’indomani e chiede: - Quanti prima di me?
Il barbiere risponde: - Sei.
L’uomo va via, torna l’indomani e chiede: - Quanti prima di me?
Il barbiere risponde: - Cinque.
L’uomo va via e il barbiere dice al garzone: - Segui quell’uomo e vedi in quale casa si dirige.
Il ragazzo torna e dice: - La tua!
CAPITOLO 14
Pronomi relativi
(known by this writer)
Un uomo dice: - Potrei raccontare quella barzelletta del paziente a cui il medico disse che sarebbe bastato
un cucchiaino ogni due ore. Quando lo operarono una settimana dopo: aveva lo stomaco pieno di
cucchiaini.
(Ragusa & Roversi, 155)
Quanti italiani ci vogliono per cambiare una lampadina?
Allora, mio cugino Vincenzo conosce un ragazzo che ha un fratello fidanzato con una ragazza il cui padre
ha fatto il militare con un certo Riccardo il cui cognato è stato a scuola con uno la cui madre aveva un
negozio di scarpe. Una delle due commesse usciva con un ragazzo la cui mamma andava a messa con la
moglie di un certo Guido che conosce un tipo con una sorella sposata con un elettricista, che lo farebbe per
niente.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
96
Chi
(Ragusa & Roversi, 63)
Due pesci rossi nuotano nella loro boccia di vetro. A un certo punto, uno chiede all’altro: - Tu credi in Dio?
E l’altro: - Certo! Chi credi che ci cambi l’acqua tutti i giorni?
(bastardidentro.com)
Una signora sente suonare alla porta, va ad aprire e si trova di fronte
due uomini vestiti di nero.
“Chi siete?” chiede spaventata.
"Buongiorno signora" dicono quelli, "Abbiamo delle brutte notizie sul vostro cane."
"Cosa gli è successo? Sta male?" chiede Maria.
"No, peggio." rispondono i due.
"Si è ferito?" domanda ancora la donna.
"No, peggio."
"Si è rotto qualcosa?"
"No, no, ancora peggio."
"E' in coma?"
"No... peggio."
"E' morto?"
"No, peggio."
"Come peggio che morto?" "Ma no signora stiamo scherzando, è che non sapevamo come dirle che è
morto!"
(barzellette.it)
Un granchio fa una corte spietata a una sardina, ma questa resiste con ostinazione:
- Non accetteró mai la corte di uno che cammina tutto per storto come fai tu. A me piace chi cammina
dritto!
Il granchio ce la mette tutta e, facendo sforzi terribili, riesce a presentarsi una sera alla sardina camminando
dritto come un fuso. La sardina, sconvolta, cede e vanno a cena insieme e trascorrono una stupenda serata
promettendosi a vicenda amore vero per tutta la vita.
La mattina dopo, lei incontra il granchio per caso e lo vede camminare tutto storto e, furiosa, gli grida
dietro:
- Ricominci a camminare di traverso? Vigliacco. Non mi ami già più!
- Ma sì che ti amo! - risponde lui - Solo che non posso ubriacarmi in continuazione...
Costruzioni con l’infinito
(Ragusa & Roversi, 66)
Perché i canguri odiano i giorni di pioggia?
Perché i bambini rimangono a giocare in casa.
(Ragusa & Roversi, 127)
Perché la gallina ha attraversato la strada?
CHARLES DARWIN Era il gradino evolutivo logico successivo alla discesa dall’albero.
ISAAC NEWTON Una gallina ferma tende a restare ferma. Una gallina in movimento tende ad attraversare
la strada.
BOB DYLAN (In musica) How many times has the chicken crossed the road...
LA SFINGE Dimmelo tu.
Nomi e aggettivi in –a
(barzellette.it)
Il papa, con l’aiuto di Dio decide di premiare un giovane che è sempre stato buono con tutti. Il papa gli
dice: - Voglio premiarti e potrai scegliere tra saggezza, ricchezza e bellezza. Il giovane ci pensa su e sceglie
la saggezza.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
97
L’indomani racconta tutto agli amici del suo incontro col papa e del miracolo avvenuto. Gli amici vogliono
una prova e gli chiedono di dire qualche cosa, e il giovane, sempre ottimista e più saggio che mai risponde:
- Era meglio se prendevo i soldi...
CAPITOLO 15
Passato remoto
(Ragusa & Roversi, 159)
Un amichetto racconta a Francesco di quando sua nonna morì.
- Sai, cadde dal quinto piano e volò in cielo dieci anni fa.
E Francesco: - Accidenti! Ma come fece a rimbalzare così in alto?
(Ragusa & Roversi, 167)
C’era una volta un famoso capitano che fece moltissimi viaggi su tutti i mari, vincendo tempeste e pirati.
Era molto ammirato e benvoluto sia dalla ciurma che dagli ufficiali.
Il nostro capitano compiva ogni mattina uno strano rituale: prima di salire sul ponte andava nella sua
cabina, spostava un quadro raffigurante un veliero, apriva la piccola cassaforte celata da quel quadro, ne
estraeva un foglio di carta piegato in quattro, lo apriva, lo ripiegava, lo rimetteva dentro la cassaforte,
richiudeva la cassaforte, risistemava il quadro e finalmente saliva sul ponte dove attendeva ai suoi doveri di
capitano.
La scena si ripeté per anni e anni, e l’equipaggio, che spiava lo strano rituale, era curiosissimo di sapere
cosa fosse scritto su quella carta. Si trattava forse della mappa di un tesoro? Un giorno il capitano morí.
Dopo aver celebrato il funerale in mare, il secondo ufficiale e la ciurma si precipitarono nella cabina del
comandante. Il secondo aprí la cassaforte, prese il foglio, lo lesse, impallidì e lo mostrò all’equipaggio. Sul
foglio c’era scritto: “Babordo: sinistra. Tribordo: destra”.
Numeri ordinali
(Ragusa & Roversi, 17)
Un signore e il figlio stanno visitando un centro commerciale. Camminando, la loro attenzione viene
colpita da due splendenti pareti argentate che si aprono e si chiudono da sole. Il ragazzo chiede al padre: -
Cos’è quella cosa, papà? E il padre, per la prima volta al cospetto di un ascensore, risponde: - Non lo so,
figlio mio, non ho mai visto niente di simile in vita mia.
In quel momento, una vecchietta si avvicina lentamente, aiutandosi con un bastone, all’ascensore e preme
un bottone. Le porte si aprono e la vecchietta entra in una piccola camera. Le porte si chiudono e i due,
padre e figlio, vedono che si illuminano successivamente tutti i numeri sopra la porta, dal primo, al
secondo, al terzo, al quarto, quinto, sesto, settimo, ottavo, nono e decimo, l’ultimo. Poi succede il contrario,
i numeri si illuminano via via dal decimo, al nono, ottavo, settimo, sesto, quinto, quarto, terzo, secondo e
primo finché le porte si riaprono e viene fuori una bellissima ragazza di una ventina d’anni.
Il vecchio la guarda stupito, poi dice al figlio:
- Corri a chiamare tua madre.
Volerci vs. Metterci
(Ragusa & Roversi, 92)
Quanti cantanti country ci vogliono per cambiare una lampadina?
Quattro. Uno per cambiarla, uno che canta quanto dolore al cuore gli ha dato la perdita della lampadina,
uno che canta di come si è follemente innamorato della nuova lampadina, e uno che lancia il cappello in
aria urlando “Yeaahhh!”
(Ragusa & Roversi, 8)
Quanti istruttori di aerobica ci vogliono per cambiare lampadina?
5. 4 la cambiano in perfetta sincronia e uno dice: - A sinistra, e a sinistra, e a sinistra, e a sinistra, e prendila
fuori, e mettila giù, e prendila su, e mettila dentro, e vai a destra, e a destra, e a destra, e a destra...
(Ragusa e Roversi, 147)
Un signore torna dal golf tardi la sera e stanco morto. Appena si sdraia sul divano si addormenta e si
risveglia a sera tardi. La moglie gli chiede: - Ma caro, come mai ci hai messo così tanto a tornare a casa? E
come mai sei così stanco oggi?
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
98
- Ti ricordi di Antonio? Il mio compagno di golf? Be’... è morto oggi alla quarta buca!
- Ma... è terribile!
- Dillo a me! Per tutte le altre quattordici buche, tra, trascina Antonio, raccogli la pallina, trascina Antonio,
leva la bandierina, trascina Antonio, ritira...
CAPITOLO 16
Congiuntivo presente
(Ragusa & Roversi, 15)
Paolo ama teneramente la sua vecchissima nonna, e per Natale decide di regalarle un pappagallo parlante
perché le tenga compagnia. Va in un negozio di animali e insiste per avere un pappagallo che non solo
sappia parlare, ma possieda anche un vocabolario vastissimo. Il negoziante gliene mostra uno veramente
sorprendente e Paolo lo compra a carissimo prezzo. La vigilia di Natale il pappagallo viene recapitato alla
vecchia signora, e il giorno di Natale Paolo telefona alla nonna e le chiede: - Allora, nonna, ti è piaciuto
l’uccello che ti ho mandato?
E la vecchietta, entusiasta: - Era squisito.
Verbi ed espressioni che richiedono il congiuntivo
(barzellette.it)
Due cani si incontrano.
“Bau!”
“Miao!”
“Miao?! Come miao?!”
“Al giorno d’oggi uno è spacciato a meno che non sappia almeno due lingue!”
Congiuntivo passato
(Ragusa & Roversi, 79)
- Dottore, dottore, non credo sia stata un’allucinazione! Vedo coccodrilli rosa dottore! Solo coccodrilli
rosa!!!
- Ha visto uno psichiatra?
- No, solo coccodrilli rosa.
CAPITOLO 17
Congiunzioni che richiedono il congiuntivo
(barzellette.it)
Due cani si incontrano:
“Bau!”
“Miao!”
“Miao?! Come sarebbe a dire Miao??!!”
“Ma non lo sai? Al giorno d’oggi uno è spacciato a meno che non sappia almeno due lingue!”
Altri usi del congiuntivo
(Ragusa & Roversi, 148)
Due signori stanno giocando a briscola. A un certo punto, al limite del campo passa un funerale. Uno dei
due uomini smette di giocare, si toglie il cappello, si alza in piedi e si raccoglie in silenzio finché il corteo
funebre non è passato.
- Non sapevo che fossi cosí gentleman, - dice l’altro.
- Comunque sia..siamo stati sposati per tretacinque anni!
Congiuntivo o infinito? (barzellette.it)
Non capisco:
1) Come mai le donne preferiscono mettere il mascara tenendo la bocca aperta?
2) Come mai la Lemonsoda è fatta con aromi artificiali e nel detersivo per i piatti trovi vero succo di
limone?
4) Quando producono un nuovo cibo per cani "più gustoso", in realtà, chi lo ha assaggiato?
5) Perché Noè non ha voluto che quelle zanzare affogassero?
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
99
7) Conoscete le indistruttibili scatole nere degli aerei? Perché la gente non preferisce costruire tutto l'aereo
con quella roba???
8) Perché le pecore non si restringono quando piove?
9) Se volare è così sicuro, come mai quello dell'aeroporto lo chiamano ... Terminal? Mah...
Capitolo 18
Imperfetto del congiuntivo
(barzellette.it)
Signore, Ti ringrazio affinché io provassi le difficoltà,
perché ho imparato l’arte di sopravvivere.
Ti ringrazio affinché io incontrassi l’arroganza,
perché ho capito il valore dell’umiltà.
Ti ringrazio affinché mi facessi conoscere la sofferenza,
perché ho diviso il pane della solidarietà.
Ora vorrei rivolgerTi una preghiera:
...non sarebbe possibile una tregua?
Trapassato del congiuntivo
(barzellette.it)
Che io l’avessi davvero meritata era scontato! Evviva ! Mi hanno dato la patente ! Finalmente posso
guidare la mia macchina senza dover stare ad ascoltare l'istruttore che ripete continuamente : « Attento !
Senso vietato", "Stai andando contro mano!", "Attento a quella vecchietta, frena, frena!", ed altre frasi del
genere. Proprio non so come ho fatto a sopportarlo per due anni...
(barzellette.it)
In un paesino di provincia vive una giovane coppia di sposi, che però non riesce ad avere figli.
Confidandosi con il parroco del paese, questi gli suggerisce di affidarsi alla preghiera e di fare un viaggio a
Lourdes e accendere una candela per ottenere aiuto dal Signore.
I due, approfittando delle vacanze, si recano quindi in pellegrinaggio a Lourdes e seguono i consigli del
parroco.
Dopo poco tempo il parroco viene trasferito in un altro paese.
Dopo molti anni, ritorna in visita nel suo paesino e, ricordandosi della coppia di sposi, decide di andarli a
trovare.
Quando bussa alla loro porta, gli apre un bambino di circa dieci anni e il parroco fra sé pensa: "Però, il
consiglio che gli ho dato è stato utile!"
Il parroco allora:
- Ciao piccolo, sono in casa mamma e papà?
Il bimbo:
- No, sono fuori!
- Ma torneranno tardi?
- Non saprei di preciso, la mamma è andata con i miei due fratellini più piccoli dal dottore perché aspetta
due gemelli...
- E tu sei in casa da solo?
- No! C'è mia sorella più grande che sta dando il biberon alla mia sorellina di 7 mesi!
- E tuo papà?
- Non sono certo, è partito ieri, credo fosse andato a Lourdes a spegnere una candela...
Correlazione dei tempi del congiuntivo
(Ragusa & Roversi, 155)
Un gruppo d’italiani sono in visita alle cascate del Niagara. A un certo punto, la guida esclama: - Ecco le
cascate! E credo che se facciate un po’ di silenzio riuscirete anche a sentire il rumore.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
100
(source n/a)
Credo che abbiano trovato Nemo ...
4.2.4 Procedure
The CIS was given twice in each course, once at the beginning of the semester
(respectively on September 20, 2004 for the control group, and on September 17, 2004
for the experimental group), the other toward the end of it (respectively on November 22,
2004 for the control group, and on November 24, 2004 for the experimental group), right
before the final testing. The students were asked to think of the material they learned up
to that date and to indicate the truthfulness of the 34 statements proposed in CIS by
keeping track on the answer sheet provided. They were asked to respond to the
statements by trying to give true answers which would apply to them rather than giving
the answers someone else (i.e., the instructor) wanted to hear. The answers were
anonymous.
4.2.5 Results
The first hypothesis was that the use of humor would increase student learning, measured
by test scores. This hypothesis was not confirmed. As shown in Table 5 in the next page,
test scores for both groups were virtually identical.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
101
Table 5 Exams Average (%)
Class I (M-W; 6.10pm-7.50pm)
NO HUMOR
Class II (M-W-R-F; 11.00am11.50am)
HUMOR
Test1 Test2 Test3 Test4 Test5 Test1 Test2 Test3 Test4 Test5
Average% 82.38 81.50 77.13 84.63 84.50 80.94 81.54 80.36 87.81 81.45
Total Average Class I (%): 82.02
Total Average Class II (%): 82.66
The second hypothesis was that student motivation would increase over time by
the use of humor in the classroom. Table 6 shows that this hypothesis was not supported
either. It shows student motivation in the humor group, measured by the ARCS model at
Time 1 (beginning of the semester) and Time 2 (end of the semester).
It can be seen that in fact motivation decreased over time in many cases in the humor
group.
Table 6 Humor: Time 1/Time 2 (Average Scores per Subscale: Range is 1-5)
Student A R C S Totals Average
1B 4.37/3.25 4.67/3.22 4.87/4.25 4.78/3.33 3.7/3.5
2B 4.12/3.0 5.0/2.55 4.87/2.87 5.0/2.88 4.8/2.8
3B 3.12/4.87 3.0/5.0 3.5/5.0 2.89/4.55 3.1/4.8
4B 4.0/3.5 3.67/4.33 3.0/5.0 2.0/4.22 3.1/4.2
5B 3.25/5.0 4.11/5.0 4.75/5.0 3.89/5.0 4/5
6B 4.12/3.5 4.78/3.44 4.75/4.62 4.44/4.0 4.5/3.9
7B 3.5/3.25 4.67/3.55 4.25/3.37 4.22/3.33 4.1/3.4
8B 3.75/3.37 3.55/3.0 4.5/1.62 4.33/2.88 4/4.3
Table 7, shown in the next page, is given as a comparison. It shows the results at
Time 1 (beginning of the semester) and Time 2 (end of the semester) for the control
group (NO Humor). Again, the results are mixed, with there being decreases in
motivation over time for several students.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
102
Table 7 No Humor: Time 1/Time 2 (Average Scores per Subscale: Range is 1-5)
Student A R C S Totals Average
1A 3.63/4.0 4.67/3.33 4.25/5.0 4.44/4.22 4.3/4.1
2A 3.63/2.87 3.33/2.33 3.87/2.25 2.89/2.0 3.4/2.3
3A 3.50/4.5 3.44/4.77 4.87/4.87 4.33/4.44 4/4.7
4A 4.87/4.25 4.87/4.44 4.87/4.62 4.55/4.55 4.8/4.4
Overall, hypothesis 2 was not supported. Use of Humor in the classroom seemed to have
no effect on student motivation. The inconclusive nature of the data is captured by the
following graph, which plots individual student average motivation scores at both survey
times, in both conditions.
Graph 1
4.2.6 Discussion
The present study focused on humor as a way to sustain motivation in foreign
language learning throughout a course. However, the results indicated no particular
significance of humor effects on motivation.
Humor's Effectiveness on Motivation
Survey #1 + Survey #2
1
2
3
4
5
Students
Sco
res
No Humor 1
No Humor 2
Humor 1
Humor 2
No Humor 1 4.3 3.4 4 4.8
No Humor 2 4.1 2.3 4.7 4.4
Humor 1 3.7 4.8 3.1 3.1 4 4.5 4.1 4
Humor 2 3.5 2.8 4.8 4.2 5 3.9 3.4 4.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
103
Neither of the original hypotheses was supported. Because of its small scale, with
relatively few subjects, the generalization of this study is uncertain. In order to assess
humor’s true effectiveness on motivation, it would be advisable to repeat the study with
more subjects.
Results of the study were also partially determined by the model of motivation
used. We need to keep in mind that motivation is a very complex phenomenon which
addresses many variables. This study looked at only four of these variables, those which
were taken into consideration by ARCS, leaving other ones nearly overlooked (e.g.,
learners’ attitudes). Any study of motivation must also take into account individual
differences. The problem is always the same: a strategy may work for one learner, but
may not work for another one. A joke could create positive appraisals on behalf of certain
foreign language learners, but not others. Further studies will perhaps discuss this concept
of motivations.
Conclusion
Motivation appears to be a simple phenomenon to understand even though, once we
approach it, several issues arise. Motivation is often confused with similar terms, namely
attitudes and orientations, and involves additional variables this writer did not explicitly
address (not only ARCS variables, but even desires for instance). Such variables seemed
to play a very active role, deeply affecting the trend of individuals’ motivation and
additionally acting more or less powerful on an individual’s behavior.
The copious research in the field indicated the chances of maintaining motivation
in the foreign language classroom through the positive evaluation of stimuli.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
104
Since humor was shown to be helpful, when well employed, in serious work place
environments, this writer chose humor as the tool in the foreign language classroom
environment because it seemed to create several positive effects (e.g. creating a much
nicer and much more relaxed atmosphere to work in). However, humor seemed to be
deeply affected by individual differences: if humor works for one L2 learner, it might not
work for another.
This writer assumed this hypothesis which is that humor helps L2 learners make
positive evaluations about the foreign language learning stimulus (and whatever is
involved with it, e.g., taking quizzes) and transform L2 learners’ attitudes, increasing
their motivation, in order to reach their final goal (e.g., learn the foreign language, thus
pass the foreign language course).
Unfortunately, the apparent logical hypothesis that the positive connotations of humor
should carry over to the classroom environment, and specifically to learning, was not
confirmed. On the one hand, this is surprising, since one would expect that a positive
environment should lead to better performance. On the other hand, research on humor in
the classroom has notoriously been inconclusive. Thus, this study follows along in this
unfortunate tendency. It is possible, as suggested above, that personal differences are
responsible for the inconclusiveness of data, in which case replicating the present study
with more data would be appropriate. It is also possible that, in true scientific fashion, the
hypothesis should be discarded. We can only conclude that further research is necessary
to answer these questions.
Effect of Humor on Motivation in FLL
105
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