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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Chapter 12 Joining and Fastening Processes
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Joints
FIGURE 12.1 Examples of joints that can be made through the various joining processes
described in Chapter 12.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Joining Processes
TABLE 12.1
Comparison of various
joining processes.
Note: 1, very good; 2, good; 3, poor.
CHARACTERISTICS
METHOD
Arc wed!"gRe#!#t$"ce wed!"g%r$&!"g%ot# $"d "'t#R!vet!"g($#te"er#Se$)!"g, cr!)p!"g
Ad*e#!ve +o"d!"g
11111223
22122321
31133311
11111132
33321233
13111212
23313233
23211113
21332312
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Characteristics of Joining Processes
TABLE 12.2 General characteristics of joining processes.
* 1, highes t ; 5, lowe st
OININ-ROCESS
OPERATION ADVANTAGE SKILLLEVEL
REQUIRED
E LDINGPOSITION
!URRENTT"PE
DISTOR #TION
*!O S T O $
EQUIP#%E N T
Shiel&e&
'et(l#()
%(+(l P o)t(- le
(+& . le/i-le
0 igh A ll (, & 1 to Low
S-'e)ge&()
Ato'(ti 0 igh&e2osit io+
Low to'e&i'
$l(t ( +&ho)i3o+t(l
(, & 1 to % e& i'
G(s 'e t(l #( )
Se'i(to'(tio) (o'(ti
% os t'et(ls
Low tohigh
A ll & to 4 % e& i' tohigh
G( s t+ g#
ste+#()
%(+(l o)
(to'(ti
% os t
'et(ls
Low to
high
A ll (, & to 4 % e& i'
$l/#o)e&
()
Se'i(to'(ti
o) (to'(ti
0igh
&e2osit io+
Low to
high
A ll & 1 to 4 % e& i'
O / .el %(+(l P o)t(- le(+& . le/i-le
0 igh A ll # to 6 Low
Elet)o+#-e(', l(se)#-e('
Se'i(to'(tio) (to'(ti
% os t'et(ls
%e& i' tohigh
A ll # 4 to 5 0 igh
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Shielded Metal-Arc-Welding Process
FIGURE 12.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc-welding process. About 50% of alllarge-scale industrial welding operations use this process. (b) Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-
arc-welding operation, also known as stick welding, because the electrode is in the shape of a stick.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Weld Zone Build-Up Seuence
FIGURE 12.3 A weld zone showing the build-up sequence of individual weld beads in deep
welds.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Su!"erged Arc-Welding Process
FIGURE 12.4 Schematic illustration of the submerged arc-welding process and equipment.Unfused flux is recovered and reused.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
M#$ Welding Basic %uip"ent
FIGURE 12.5 (a) Gas metal-arc-welding process, formerly known as MIG welding (for
metal inert gas). (b) Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc-welding operations.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Flu&-Cored Arc-Welding Process
FIGURE 12.6 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operation
is similar to gas metal-arc welding, shown in Fig. 12.5.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
%lectrogas-Welding Process
FIGURE 12.7 Schematic illustration of theelectrogas-welding process. Source:
Courtesy of the American Welding Society.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
%lectroslag-Welding 'perations
FIGURE 12.8 Equipment used forelectroslag-welding operations. Source:
Courtesy of the American Welding Society.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
(#$ Welding Process
FIGURE 12.9 (a) Gas tungsten-arc-welding process, formerly known as TIG welding ( for
tungsten inert gas). (b) Equipment for gas tungsten-arc-welding operations.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Plas"a-Arc-Welding Processes
FIGURE 12.10 Two types of plasma-arc-welding processes: (a) transferred and (b)
nontransferred. Deep and narrow welds are made by this process at high welding speeds.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Co"parison of Weld Bead Si)e
FIGURE 12.11 Comparison of the size of weld beads in (a) electron-beam or laser-beam
welding with that in (b) conventional (tungsten-arc) welding. Source: American WeldingSociety, Welding Handbook , 8th ed., 1991.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
*aser-Bea" Welds
FIGURE 12.12 Gillette Sensor razor cartridge, with laser-beam welds.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
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Prentice Hall, 2003
Fusion-Weld Zone
FIGURE 12.13 Characteristics of a typical fusion-weld zone in oxyfuel-gas and arc
welding.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
$rain Structure
FIGURE 12.14 Grain structure in (a) deep weld and (b) a shallow weld. Note that the grains in the solidified weld metal arcperpendicular to their interface with the base metal are perpendicular to their interface with the base metal. In a good weld,the solidification line at the center in the deep weld shown in (a) has grain migration, thus developing uniform strength in theweld bead.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Weld Bead Microhardness Pro+le
FIGURE 12.15 (a) Weld bead on a cold-rolled nickel strip produced by a laser beam. (b)
Microhardness profile across the weld bead. Note the softer condition of the weld beadcompared with the base metal. Source: IIT Research Institute.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Fusion-Weld ZoneFIGURE 12.16 Schematic illustration of variousregions in a fusion-weld zone and the correspondingphase diagram for 0.30% C steel. Source: Courtesy
of the American Welding Society.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
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Prentice Hall, 2003
#ntergranular Corrosion
FIGURE 12.17 Intergranular corrosion of a weld in ferritic stainless-steel welded tube afterexposure to a caustic solution. The weld line is at the center of the photograph. Scanningelectron micrograph at 20X. Source: Courtesy of B, R, Jack, Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
,iscontinuities in Fusion Welds
FIGURE 12.18 Examples of various discontinuities in fusion welds.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
,efects in Fusion Welds
FIGURE 12.19 Examples of various defects in fusion welds.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
(pes of Crac.s in Welded Joints
FIGURE 12.20 Types of cracks in welded joints. The cracks re caused by thermal stresses
that develop during solidification and contraction of the weld bead and the welded structure:
(a) crater cracks; (b) various types of cracks in butt and T joints.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Crac. in a Weld Bead
FIGURE 12.21 Crack in a weld bead. The two components
were not allowed to contract after the weld was completed.Source: S.L. Meiley, Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
,istortion of Parts After Welding
FIGURE 12.22 Distortion of parts after welding: (a) butt joints and (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused
by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly. Warping can
be reduced or eliminated by proper weld design and part fixturing prior to welding.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
/esidual Stresses in Straight Butt Joint
FIGURE 12.23 Residual stresses developed in a straight butt joint. Source
: Courtesy of theAmerican Welding Society.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
(ension-Shear (esting
FIGURE 12.24 (a) Types of specimens for tension-shear testing of welds. (b) Wraparoundbend test method. (c) Three-point bending of welded specimens. (See also Fig. 2.23.)
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
(ension-Shear0 Cross-(ension0 (ist andPeel (est for Spot Welds
FIGURE 12.25 (a) Tension-shear test for spot welds. (b)
Cross-tension test. (c) Twisttest. (d) Peel test.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Cladding Process
FIGURE 12.26 Schematic illustration of the roll-bonding, or cladding, process.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Ultrasonic-Welding
FIGURE 12.27 (a) Components of an ultrasonic-welding machine for lap welds. The lateral vibrations
of the tool tip case plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic
seam welding using a roller.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Friction-Welding Process
FIGURE 12.28 Sequence of operations in the friction-welding process. (a) The part on the left is rotated at high speed.(b) The part on the right is brought into contact under an axial force. (c) The axial force is increased; flash begins to form.(d) The part on the left stops rotating. The weld is completed. Flash can be removed by machining or grinding.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Fusion Zone in Friction Welding
FIGURE 12.29 Shape of the fusion zone in friction welding as a function of the force
applied and the rotational speed.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Friction Stir-Welding Process
FIGURE 12.30 The principle of the friction stir-welding process. Aluminum-allot plates up to75mm (3 in.) thick have been wended by this process. Source: TWI, Cambridge, UnitedKingdom.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Seuence in /esistance Spot-Welding
FIGURE 12.31 (a) Sequence in the resistance spot-weldingprocess. (b) Cross-section of a spot weld, showing weld nuggetand light indentation by the electrode on sheet surfaces. Thismethod is one of the most common processes used in sheet-
metal fabrication and automotive-body assembly.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Special %lectrodes for Spot-Welding
FIGURE 12.32 Types of special electrodes designed for easy access in spot-welding
operations for complex shapes.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Sea"-Welding Process
FIGURE 12.33 (a) Seam-welding process, with rolls acting as electrodes. (b) Overlapping
spots in a seam weld. (c) Roll spot welds.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
/esistance Proection Welding
FIGURE 12.34 Schematic illustration of resistance projection welding: (a) before and (b)
after. The projections are produced by embossing operations, as described in Section 7.12.2.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Flash-Welding Process
FIGURE 12.35 Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of solid rods or tubular parts.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Stud Arc Welding
FIGURE 12.36 Sequence of operations in stud arc welding, which is used for welding bars,
threaded rods, and various fasteners on metal plates.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
%&plosion-Welding Process
FIGURE 12.37 Schematic illustration of the explosion-welding process: (a) constant-
interface clearance gap and (b) angular-interface clearance gap.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
%&plosion-Welded Joints
FIGURE 12.38 Cross-sections of explosion-welded joints: (a) titanium (top) on low-carbon steel (bottom) and (b) incoloy 800(iron-nickel-base alloy on low-carbon steel. The wavy interfaces shown improve the shear strength of the joint. Some combinationsof metals, such as tantalum and vanadium, produce a much less wavy interface. If the two metals have little metallurgicalcompatibility, and interlayer may be added that has compatibility with both metals. Source: Courtesy of DuPont Company.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
,i3usion Bonding and SuperplasticFor"ing
FIGURE 12.39 (a) Sequence of operations in diffusion bonding and superplatic forming of a
structure with three flat sheets. Source: After D. Stephen and S, J. Swadling. (b) Typicalstructures fabricated. Source: Rockwell International Corp.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Bra)ing and Bra)e-Welding
FIGURE 12.40 (a) Brazing and (b) braze-welding operations.
FIGURE 12.41 An
example of furnace
brazing: (a) before and
(b) after. Note that the
metal is a shaped wire.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Bra)ing Filler Metals
TABLE 12.3 Typical filler metals for brazing various metals and alloys.
%ASE META/ (I//ER META/ %RA0IN-TEMERATRE
C4
A')!"') $"d !t# $oy# A')!"')5#!!co" 6785928M$g"e#!') $oy# M$g"e#!')5$')!"') 685926Copper $"d !t# $oy# Copper5p*o#p*or'# 788526(erro'# $"d "o"<erro'# $oy# e=cept$')!"') $"d )$g"e#!')4
S!ver $"d copper $oy#,copper5p*o#p*or'#
92851168
Iro"5, "!c>e5, $"d co+$t5+$#e $oy# -od 8851188St$!"e## #tee#, "!c>e5 $"d co+$t5+$#e $oy# N!c>e5#!ver 2651288
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Joint ,esigns
FIGURE 12.42 Joint designs commonly used in brazing operations.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Joint ,esigns in Soldering
FIGURE 12.43 Joint designs commonly used for soldering.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Solders
TABLE 12.4 Types of solders and their applications.
T!"5e$dT!"5&!"c/e$d5#!ver C$d)!')5#!ver
0!"c5$')!"')T!"5#!ver T!"5+!#)'t*
-e"er$ p'rpo#e A')!"')Stre"gt* $t *!g*er t*$" roo) te)per$t'reStre"gt* $t *!g* te)per$t're#
A')!"'); corro#!o" re#!#t$"ceEectro"!c#Eectro"!c#
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
/e4o Soldering
FIGURE 12.44 Screening solder paste onto a printed circuit board in reflow soldering.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Wa5e-Soldering Process
FIGURE 12.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the wave-soldering process. (b) SEM image of
a wave-soldered joint on a surface-mount device.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Adhesi5el Bonded JointsFIGURE 12.46 Various configurations for
adhesively bonded joints: (a) single lap, (b)
double lap, (c) scarf, and (d) strap.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Adhesi5es
TABLE 12.5 Typical properties and characteristics of chemically reactive structural
adhesives.
So'rce: Advanced Materials & Processes, 'y 18, ASM I"ter"$t!o"$.
EPO7" POL"URET0ANE %ODI$IEDA!R"LI!
!"ANO!R"LATE ANAERO8I!
I)p$ct re#!#t$"ce oor E=cee"t -ood oor ($!r Te"#!o"5#*e$r #tre"gt*,M$ 18
3 p#!4 16.? 2.24 16.? 2.24 26. 3.74 1. 2.74 17.6 2.64
ee #tre"gt*,N@) +@!".4 626 34 1?,888 84 6268 384 626 34 1768 184S'+#tr$te# +o"ded Mo#t Mo#t #)oot*,
"o"poro'#Mo#t
#)oot*,"o"poro'#
Mo#t"o"poro'#)et$# or p$#t!c#
Met$#, g$##,t*er)o#et#
Serv!ce te)per$t'rer$"ge, C (4
566 to 128578 to 2684
5198 to 85268 to 1764
578 to 1285188 to
2684
566 to 8578 to 1764
566 to 168578 to 3884
He$t c're or )!=!"greB'!red
e# e# No No No
Sove"t re#!#t$"ce E=cee"t -ood -ood -ood E=cee"tMo!#t're re#!#t$"ce E=cee"t ($!r -ood oor -ood-$p !)!t$t!o", ))!".4 No"e No"e 8.76 8.834 8.26 8.814 8.98 8.8264Odor M!d M!d Stro"g Moder$te M!dTo=!c!ty Moder$te Moder$te Moder$te /ow /ow($))$+!!ty /ow /ow H!g* /ow /ow
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Brittle and (ough Adhesi5es in Peeling
FIGURE 12.47 Characteristic behavior of (a) brittle and (b) tough adhesives in a peeling test.This test is similar to peeling adhesive tape from a solid surface. Adhesive joints. Should notbe subjected to this type of loading in service.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
%&a"ples of /i5ets and Stitching
FIGURE 12.48 Examples of rivets: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c) split (or bifurcated), and (d)
compression.
FIGURE 12.49 Examples of metal stitching.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
,ou!le-*oc. Sea" and Cri"ping
FIGURE 12.50 Stages in forming a double-lock seam.
FIGURE 12.51 Two examples
of mechanical joining by
crimping.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Spring and Snap Fasteners
FIGURE 12.52 Examples ofspring and snap-in fasteners to
facilitate assembly.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
,esign $uidelines for Welding
FIGURE 12.53 Design guidelines for welding. Source: J. G. Bralla (ed.), Handbook ofProduct Design for Manufacturing. Copyright © 1986, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.Reproduced by permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Flash Welding $uidelines
FIGURE 12.54 Design guidelines for flash welding.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Weld ,esigns
FIGURE 12.55 Weld designs for Example 12.4.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
$ood and Poor ,esigns for Bra)ing
FIGURE 12.56 Examples of good
and poor designs for brazing.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Joint ,esigns in Adhesi5e Bonding
FIGURE 12.57 Various joint
designs in adhesive bonding.
Note that good design requireslarge contact areas between the
members to be joined.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
,esigns $uidelines for /i5eting
FIGURE 12.58 Design guidelines for riveting. Source: J. G. Bralla.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Blood /eser5oir
FIGURE 12.59 The Cobe Laboratories blood reservoir. Thelid is bonded to the bowl with an airtight adhesive joint and
tongue-in-groove joint. Source: Cobe Laboratories.