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Chapter 9
Coral ReefsCoral Reefs
Coral reefs are living structures that provide homes and attachment sites for countless marine organisms in shallow tropical oceans.
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Coral Reefs
Anatomy and Growth
Coral reefs are created by many species of colonial cnidarians.
These anemone-like polyps produce a CaCO3 skeleton in a great variety of sizes and shapes.
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Coral Reefs
Anatomy and Growth
Fig. 9.1 Extended polyps of a coral colony. The numerous light-colored spots on the tentacles are
batteries of cnidocytes.
Fig. 9.2 Cross-section of a coral polyp and a calcareous corallite skeleton. The living coral tissue forms a thin interconnection, the cenosarc, over the
surface of the reef.
© Photos.com
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Coral Reefs
Anatomy and Growth
Fig. 9.3 Coral exhibit a large variety of growth forms.
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Coral Reefs
Anatomy
and Growth
Fig. 9.4 Parrotfishes, major grazers of coral skeletal
material, use their powerful jaws to produce large
amounts of carbonate sand on the reef.
© Wolfgang Amri/ShutterStock, Inc.
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Coral Reefs
Coral Distribution Living coral reefs usually are located:
• within 30º latitude of the equator
• in water that averages at least 20ºC
• on the eastern sides of most continents
• within the photic zone at depths of 0-50 meters
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Coral ReefsCoral Distribution
Fig. 9.5 Distribution of reef-forming corals, by number of genera. Heavy black lines indicate continental barrier reefs.
Light blue: <20 generaMedium blue: 20-40 genera
Dark blue: > 40 genera
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Coral Reefs
Coral Ecology
Reef-building corals maintain a mutualistic relationship with a dinoflagellate called zooxanthellae
The alga provides photosynthetic products to the coral to aid in its survival and growth
The alga receives unlimited carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes from the coral polyp in a competition-free setting
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Coral Reefs
Coral Ecology
Fig. 9.6 Exchange of materials between zooxanthellae and their coral host.
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Coral Reefs
Coral Reef Formation Charles Darwin was the first to suggest that
coral reefs are sequential developmental stages in the life cycle of a single reef:
• fringing reefs
• barrier reefs
• atolls
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Coral Reefs
Fig. 9.7 A satellite view of a portion of the hundreds of atolls
that make up the nation of Maldives.
Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory
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Coral Reefs
Fig. 9.8 The developmental sequence of coral reefs, from young fringing reefs (left), to barrier reefs (center), and finally to atolls (right).
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Coral Reefs
Coral Reef Formation and Hot SpotsFig. 9.9 Chains of
volcanoes along the Hawaiian Island-
Emperor Seamount are carried, in a conveyer-belt
fashion, north into deeper water by the
movement of the Pacific Plate. Each volcano was formed over the “hot spot,” a continuous source of new molten material
presently under Hawaii, and is carried
to its eventual destruction in the Aleutian Trench.
Courtesy of NGDC/NESDIS/NOAA
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Coral Reefs
Reproduction in Corals
Corals reproduce in a great variety of ways, both asexually and sexually
Most sexually reproducing corals are hermaphroditic spawners
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Coral Reefs
Fig. 9.10 Spawning corals. (a) Female brain coral releasing eggs; (b) male mushroom coral releasing sperm.
b
a
© Gary Bell/OceanwideImages.com
© Marty Snyderman/Visuals Unlimited
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Coral Reefs
Fig. 9.11 Micrograph of a planula larva of
the coral Pocillopora.
© Valerie Hodgson/Visuals Unlimited
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Coral Reefs
Zonation on Coral Reefs
Wave force, water depth, temperature, salinity, and a host of biological factors vary greatly across a reef
Together they result in both horizontal and vertical zonation of the species that form the reef
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Coral Reefs
Zonation on Coral Reefs
Fig. 9.12 Cross-sectional
zonation of a barrier reef.
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Coral Reefs
Fig. 9.13 Echinometra, a
common tropical sea urchin.
© Ewen Cameron/ShutterStock, Inc.
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Coral Reefs
Fig. 9.14 A giant clam, Tridacna, amid mixed corals. Note the blue mantle
tissue that is brightly colored due to the presence of innumerable mutualistic
zooxanthellae.
© Andy Lim/ShutterStock, Inc.
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Coral Reefs
Zonation on Coral Reefs
Fig. 9.15 Variations in coral growth forms: (a) table coral,
Acropora; (b) brain coral, Diploria; and (c) staghorn
coral, Acropora.
a
b
c© Andy Lim/ShutterStock, Inc.
© Lawrence Cruciana/ShutterStock, Inc.
© Andy Lim/ShutterStock, Inc.
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Coral Reefs
Coral Diversity and Catastrophic Mortality
Reefs worldwide are threatened by human activities, succumbing to:
• pollution
• destructive fishing practices
• bleaching
• a host of diseases
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Coral Reefs
Fig. 9.16 The predatory sea star, Acanthaster, and (b) its major predator, the Pacific triton, Charonia.
a
b
Courtesy of David Burdick/NOAA
Courtesy of AIMS/NOAA
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Coral Reefs
Coral Diversity and Catastrophic Mortality.
Fig. 9.17 Black band disease overgrowing a coral head. This star coral, Montastrea, which could be as much as 500 years old, will probably be dead within
one year.
Fig. 9.18 Wide-spread bleaching on a Pacific coral reef.
Courtesy of David Burdick/NOAA
Courtesy of Dr. Phillip Dustan, College of Charleston
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Coral Reef Fishes
Fig. 9.19 Some common reef fishes on a tropical Caribbean reef:
1. nurse shark (Ginglymostoma),
2. reef shark (Carcharhinus),
3. barracuda (Sphyraena),
4. surgeonfish (Acanthurus),
5. butterflyfish (Chaetodon),
6. angelfish (Pomacanthus),
7. hawkfish (Amblycirrhitus),
8. grouper (Mycteroperca),
9. moray eel (Gymnothorax),
10. stingray (Dasyatis),
11. grunt (Haemulon),
12. soldierfish (Myripristis),
13. porcupinefish (Diodon).Angelfish photo from Joyce and Frank Burek/NOAA; all other photos from John Morrissey
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Sharks and Rays Reefs worldwide are dominated by:
• benthic orectolobid sharks (nurses, wobbegongs, and bamboosharks)
• and more typical pelagic carcharhinid sharks (blacktips, whitetips, tigers, and reef sharks)
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Sharks and Rays
Fig. 9.20 Dermal flaps around the mouth of a wobbegong, a benthic reef shark.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts About 50% of all
living vertebrates are teleost fishes, and many of these fishes inhabit coral reefs.
Fig. 9.21 Numerous species of teleost fishes are associated with coral reefs.
Courtesy of NOAA
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
The great diversity of teleost fishes have evolved numerous symbiotic relationships such as inquilinism and cleaning behaviors.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Fig. 9.22 Two remoras, Echeneis, with modified
dorsal fins accompanying a nurse shark,
Ginglymostoma.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
Fig. 9.23 Shrimpfish, Aeoliscus, seeking shelter amid the spines of a sea urchin.
Fig. 9.24 A clownfish, Amphiprion, nestled within the protective tentacles of its host anemone.
© Russell Swain/ShutterStock, Inc.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
Fig. 9.25 A nearly transparent cleaner shrimp, Periclimenes, on a Caribbean sponge. Fig. 9.26 Neon gobies, Elacatinus, clean the head of a
large green moray, Gymnothorax.
Courtesy of Dr. Anthony R. Picciolo, NOAA NODC© Kelpfish/ShutterStock, Inc.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
The brightly colored patterns of coral reef fishes illustrate the advertisement, disguise, and concealment roles of brilliant coloration in a coral reef environment.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
Fig. 9.27 A well-camouflaged scorpionfish, Scorpaena (left),
with magnified chromatophores from a section of skin (right).
© Frank Boellmann/ShutterStock, Inc. © Rene Frederic/age fotostock
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
Fig. 9.28 Disruptive coloration patterns of two species of butterflyfishes, Chaetodon.
© Lawrence Cruciana/ShutterStock, Inc. © cbpix/ShutterStock, Inc.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Fig. 9.29 A cleaner wrasse, Labroides
(above), and its mimic, Aspidontus (below).
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
About one fourth of all reef-fish species place sticky benthic eggs in a guarded nest on the reef.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
Fig. 9.30 Two bicolor damselfish mate inside a discarded PVC pipe on a Caribbean reef.
Fig. 9.31 A sergeant major (Abudefduf) guards its purple egg mass in the Caribbean Sea.
Courtesy of Dr. Michael P. Robinson
© David Fleetham/Alamy Images
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
Most reef teleosts are pelagic spawners.
As many as 30 or more species at any given time will assemble around a coral promontory to broadcast as many as 50,000 eggs apiece into the water column.
After fertilization, these pelagic eggs drift away from the reef and disperse for one day to a year or more.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
Fig. 9.32 Dog snappers, Lutjanus jocu, return to the reef after a spawning run in
the water column off Belize.
© Doug Perrine/Seapics.com
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Coral Reef Fishes
Fig. 9.33 Locations of U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries
and National Estuarine Research Reserves.
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts The great diversity of
reef fishes results in sexual systems that range from species with separate sexes to simultaneous and sequential hermaphrodites.
Fig. 9.34 Clasping hamlets above a reef.
© WaterFrame/Alamy Images
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Coral Reef Fishes
Coral Reef Teleosts
Fig. 9.35 Male and female “bluehead” wrasses in their initial yellow phase.
Fig. 9.36 Terminal-phase bluehead male surveying his territory.
Courtesy of Dr. Michael P. Robinson
Courtesy of Dr. Michael P. Robinson
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Coral Reef Fishes
Fig. 9.37 Relative reproductive success experienced by males and females of protandrous clownfishes (left) and protogynous wrasses (right).