Download - Clay research summary
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Clay amended soilless substrate: Increasing water and
nutrient efficiency in containerized crop production
J.S. Owen, Jr., Dept. Horticultural Science
Dept. Soil Science
NC STATE UNIVERSITY
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Overview ¢ Introduction ¢ Experiments l Clay processing l Clay rate l Input efficiency
¢ Conclusion ¢ Future
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Overview ¢ Introduction ¢ Experiments l Clay processing l Clay rate l Input efficiency
¢ Conclusion ¢ Future
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Nursery Industry ¢ 3.97 billion dollars in gross sales
USDA, 2004.
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Nursery Industry ¢ 3.97 billion dollars in gross sales ¢ 73% containerized crop inventory
l Organic substrate
USDA, 2004.
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Nursery Industry ¢ 3.97 billion dollars in gross sales ¢ 73% containerized crop inventory
l Organic substrate ¢ Southeast
l 41% of 7,742 national operations l 34% of 20 billion ft2 in total production
USDA, 2004.
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Problem ¢ Low input efficiencies
l Water 30% to 80% l N and P 30% to 60%
Tyler et al., 1996, Lea-Cox and Ristvey, 2003; Warren and Bilderback, 2005
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Problem ¢ Low input efficiencies
l Water 30% to 80% l N and P 30% to 60%
¢ Water availability and use
Tyler et al., 1996, Lea-Cox and Ristvey, 2003; Warren and Bilderback, 2005
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Problem ¢ Low input efficiencies
l Water 30% to 80% l N and P 30% to 60%
¢ Water availability and use ¢ USEPA-MCL regulation and criteria
l Nitrate-N ≤ 10 mg L-1
l Total P ≤ 0.05 mg L-1
Tyler et al., 1996, Lea-Cox and Ristvey, 2003; Warren and Bilderback, 2005
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¢ Floriculture and nursery research initiative
l Environmental resource management systems for nurseries, greenhouses and landscapes • Clemson • University of Florida • Horticulture & Breeding Research – USDA • Floral & Nursery Plants Research – USDA
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Primary objective To engineer a pine bark-based soilless substrate that increased water and nutrient efficiency in containerized nursery crop production
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Approach
Container
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Approach
Yeager et al., 1997
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Approach
Yeager et al., 1997
EFFICIENT?
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Infrastructure
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Approach
Container
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Approach
Container
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Amendment
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Amendment ¢ Peat-based substrate
l Increase available water l Decrease effluent phosphorus l Increase pH buffering capacity l Pre-charged source of nutrient
¢ Pine bark-based substrate l Increase available water l Increase plant K and P content
Williams and Neslon, 2000 and 1997; Warren and Bilderback, 1992; Reed, 1998; Handreck and Black, 2002.
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Amendment ¢ Mineral aggregate
l Chemical absorbent l Fertilizer carrier l Barrier clays
¢ Industrial l Uniform l Reproducible
Murray, 2000.
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Amendment Raw Clay Selection & Mining
Primary Crusher Secondary Crusher
Dryer (RVM) Mill
Screen
Rotary Kiln (LVM)
Oil-Dri Corporation of America
Bag or Bulk
≤ 800°C ≈ 120°C
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Amendment Montmorillonite Palygorskite
Shulze, D.G., 2002. An introduction to soil mineralogy. In: Soil Mineralogy with Environmental Applications SSSA Book Series no. 7.
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Amendment Montmorillonite Palygorskite
Surface Area: 98 m2/g Surface Area: 122.5 m2/g
Oil-Dri Corporation of America
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Amendment
Heating Dehydration
Natural Occurring
Low Volatile Material
Shulze, D.G., 2002. An introduction to soil mineralogy. In: Soil Mineralogy with Environmental Applications SSSA Book Series no. 7.
Montmorillonite
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Amendment
Shulze, D.G., 2002. An introduction to soil mineralogy. In: Soil Mineralogy with Environmental Applications SSSA Book Series no. 7.
Heating Dehydration
Natural Occurring
Low Volatile Material
Palygorskite
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Overview ¢ Introduction ¢ Experiments l Clay processing l Clay rate l Input efficiency
¢ Conclusion ¢ Future
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Clay Processing ¢ Pine bark-based substrates
l Industrial Mineral Aggregate • 8% Clay (by vol.)
l Industry Representative Substrate • 11% Sand (by vol.)
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Clay Type ¢ Industrial Mineral Aggregate
l Processing • Particle Size
• 0.25 to 0.85 mm • 0.85 to 4.75 mm
• Temperature Pre-treatment • Low volatile material (LVM) • Regular volatile material (RVM)
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Clay Processing ¢ 2 x 2 factorial
l RCBD l 3 replications
¢ Cyclic micro-irrigation l 1200, 1500, 1800 HR EST l 0.2 target LF
¢ Medium rate of CRF ¢ Dolomite addition
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Clay Processing ¢ Data collected
l Dry weight l Influent l Effluent l Effluent N and P content
¢ Use to calculate l LF = effluent ÷ influent l WUE = water retained ÷ plant dry mass l PUE = (plant P ÷ applied P) x 100
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Field Plots
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Field Plots
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¢ Nutrient Analysis l NH4 – nitrogen l NO3 – nitrogen l Dissolved reactive P
¢ North Carolina Department of Agriculture
¢ USDA-ARS
Laboratory
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Analysis ¢ Statistics l Particle size
• Water l Temperature
pretreatment • Effluent DRP
¢ Control l A priori contrast
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Clay Processing
0
40
80
120
160
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.25-0.85 mm0.85-4.75 mmControl
Cum
ulat
ive
wat
er a
pplie
d (L
)
Day after initiation
Substrate amendment
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Clay Processing
0
40
80
120
160
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.25-0.85 mm0.85-4.75 mmControl
Cum
ulat
ive
wat
er a
pplie
d (L
)
Day after initiation
Substrate amendment
20 L
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Clay Processing
0
40
80
120
160
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.25-0.85 mm0.85-4.75 mmControl
Cum
ulat
ive
wat
er a
pplie
d (L
)
Day after initiation
Substrate amendment
31 L
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Clay Processing
0
40
80
120
160
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.25-0.85 mm0.85-4.75 mmControl
Cum
ulat
ive
wat
er a
pplie
d (L
)
Day after initiation
Substrate amendment
31 L
WUE 731 ml g-1
to 599 ml g-1
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Clay Processing
0
40
80
120
160
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.25-0.85 mm0.85-4.75 mmControl
Cum
ulat
ive
wat
er a
pplie
d (L
)
Day after initiation
Substrate amendment
107,000 gallons of water saved per growing acre while maximizing growth
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Clay Processing
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
LVM
ControlRVM
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg)
Day after initiation
Substrate amendment
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Clay Processing
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
LVM
ControlRVM
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg)
Day after initiation
Substrate amendment
19 mg
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Clay Processing
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
LVM
ControlRVM
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg)
Day after initiation
Substrate amendment
29 mg
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Clay Processing
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
LVM
ControlRVM
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg)
Day after initiation
Substrate amendment
PUE Control 27% Clay 36%
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Clay Processing ¢ Water
l Particle size • 0.25 to 0.85 mm • 18% (31L) decrease
¢ Nutrient l Phosphorus
• Temperature pretreatment • Low volatile material • 48% (29 mg) decrease
¢ Equivalent growth ¢ 0.25 to 0.85 mm LVM
24 - 48
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Clay Processing ¢ Water
l Particle size • 0.25 to 0.85 mm • 18% (31L) decrease
¢ Nutrient l Phosphorus
• Temperature pretreatment • Low volatile material • 48% (29 mg) decrease
¢ Equivalent growth ¢ 0.25 to 0.85 mm LVM
24 - 48
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Overview ¢ Introduction ¢ Experiments l Clay processing l Clay rate l Input efficiency
¢ Conclusion ¢ Future
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Physical Properties ¢ Clay rate l 0.25 to 0.85 mm LVM l 0% to 24% (by vol.)
• 4% increments ¢ Poromoter ¢ Substrate moisture
characteristic curve ¢ 15-bar extraction ¢ Particle size distribution
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Clay Rate
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Vol
ume
(%)
Mineral amendment rate (% vol.)
Porometer Results
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Clay Rate
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Vol
ume
(%)
Mineral amendment rate (% vol.)
Container Capacity
Air space
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Clay Rate
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Vol
ume
(%)
Mineral amendment rate (% vol.)
Container Capacity
Available water
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Clay Rate
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Vol
ume
(%)
Mineral amendment rate (% vol.)
Unavailable water
Available water
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Clay Rate
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Vol
ume
(%)
Mineral amendment rate (% vol.)
Air space
Available water
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Clay Rate
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Vol
ume
(%)
Mineral amendment rate (% vol.)
Air space
Available water
Normal Range
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Materials & Methods ¢ Clay rate (% vol.)
l RCBD l 0, 8, 12, 16, and 20%
¢ Li-Cor 6400 l Net photosynthesis l Stomatal conductance
¢ Nutrient analysis ¢ Plant growth
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Clay Rate
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 8 12 16 20
Top
dry
mas
s (g
)
Amendment rate (% by vol.)
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Clay Rate
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 8 12 16 20
Top
dry
mas
s (g
)
Amendment rate (% by vol.)
Max. = 12%
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Clay Rate
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 8 12 16 20
Pn (µ
mol
CO
2 m-2
s-1
) gs (µm
ol H2 O
m-2 s
-1)
Amendment rate (% by vol.)
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Clay Rate
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 8 12 16 20
Pn (µ
mol
CO
2 m-2
s-1
) gs (µm
ol H2 O
m-2 s
-1)
Amendment rate (% by vol.)
Max. = 11%
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Clay Rate
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 8 12 16 20
g s (µ
mol
H2O
m-2
s-1
)W
ater use efficinecy (ml g
-1)
Amendment rate (% by vol.)
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Clay Rate
250
300
350
400
450
500
0 8 12 16 20
Tota
l pla
nt P
con
tent
(mg)
Amendment rate (% vol.)
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Clay Rate
250
300
350
400
450
500
0 8 12 16 20
Tota
l pla
nt P
con
tent
(mg)
Amendment rate (% vol.)
PUE = 46%
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Clay Rate
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
01220
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg
L-1)
Day after initiaiton
Amendment rate (% vol.)
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Clay Rate
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
01220
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg
L-1)
Day after initiaiton
Amendment rate (% vol.)
33 mg
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Clay Rate
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
01220
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg
L-1)
Day after initiaiton
Amendment rate (% vol.)
33 mg
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Clay Rate
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Clay Rate
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Clay Rate
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¢ X-ray absorption near edge surface (XANES) spectroscopy
¢ Linear combination fitting l Athena Software
Phosphorus Speciation
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Phosphorus Speciation
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Phosphorus Speciation ¢ Linear combination fitting
l Low volatile material • 75 mol% hydroxyapatite • 25 mol% metal adsorbed P
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¢ Linear combination fitting l Low volatile material
• 75 mol% hydroxyapatite • 25 mol% metal adsorbed P
(aq)2-4(aq)2
2 (aq) (aq)(s)345 OH PO3H 5Ca 7HOH)(POCa ++⎯→←+ ++
Phosphorus Speciation
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¢ Linear combination fitting l Low volatile material
• 75 mol% hydroxyapatite • 25 mol% metal adsorbed P
(aq)2-4(aq)2
2 (aq) (aq)(s)345 OH PO3H 5Ca 7HOH)(POCa ++⎯→⎯+ ++
Phosphorus Speciation
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Clay Rate ¢ Clay rate (% vol.)
l 10% to 12% • Plant growth • Net photosynthesis • Stomatal conductance • Use efficiency
• Water • Phosphorus
l Plant mineral content
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Overview ¢ Introduction ¢ Experiments l Clay processing l Clay rate l Input efficiency
¢ Conclusion ¢ Future
![Page 75: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Input Efficiency ¢ RCBD with 4 replications
l Cyclic irrigation • 0100, 0300, 0500 HR EST
¢ Main effects l Amendment (11% by vol.)
• 0.25 to 0.85 mm LVM • Washed, builders sand
l Leaching fraction • 0.2 or 0.1
l P rate • 1.0x or 0.5x
![Page 76: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Sand Clay
0.51.0
Tota
l pla
nt d
ry m
ass
(g)
Amendment
P rate
![Page 77: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Sand Clay
0.51.0
Tota
l pla
nt d
ry m
ass
(g)
Amendment
P rate
A B
31 g
![Page 78: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Sand Clay
0.51.0
Tota
l pla
nt d
ry m
ass
(g)
Amendment
P rate
Not Significant
![Page 79: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0.5 1.0
SandClay
Tota
l pla
nt d
ry m
ass
(g)
Phosphorus rate
Amendment
![Page 80: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0.5 1.0
SandClay
Tota
l pla
nt d
ry m
ass
(g)
Phosphorus rate
Amendment
A
B
77 g
![Page 81: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0.5 1.0
SandClay
Tota
l pla
nt d
ry m
ass
(g)
Phosphorus rate
Amendment
B A 31 g
![Page 82: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
0.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
N P K Ca Mg S
SandClay
Pla
nt to
p nu
trien
t con
tent
(g)
Elemental nutrient
Amendment
0.5
Input Efficiency
![Page 83: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
0.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
N P K Ca Mg S
SandClay
Pla
nt to
p nu
trien
t con
tent
(g)
Elemental nutrient
Amendment
0.5
Input Efficiency
108%
38%
48%
54%
21%
![Page 84: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
0
20
40
60
80
100
1.0 0.5
SandClay
P u
se e
ffici
ency
(%)
Phosphorus rate
Amendment
Input Efficiency
B
![Page 85: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
0
20
40
60
80
100
1.0 0.5
SandClay
P u
se e
ffici
ency
(%)
Phosphorus rate
Amendment
Input Efficiency
B
A 11%
![Page 86: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
0
20
40
60
80
100
1.0 0.5
SandClay
P u
se e
ffici
ency
(%)
Phosphorus rate
Amendment
Input Efficiency
B
A
B
64%
![Page 87: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.10 LFClay 0.20 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
influ
ent (
L)Treatment
Day after initiation
![Page 88: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.10 LFClay 0.20 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
influ
ent (
L)Treatment
Day after initiation
26 L
![Page 89: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.10 LFClay 0.20 LFSand 0.10 LFSand 0.20 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
influ
ent (
L)Treatment
Day after initiation
![Page 90: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.10 LFClay 0.20 LFSand 0.10 LFSand 0.20 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
influ
ent (
L)Treatment
Day after initiation
90,000 gallons of water saved per growing acre
while maintaining growth
![Page 91: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.1 LFClay 0.2 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent (
L)
Day after initiation
Treatment
![Page 92: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.1 LFClay 0.2 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent (
L)
Day after initiation
Treatment
16 L
![Page 93: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.1 LFClay 0.2 LFSand 0.1 LFSand 0.2 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent (
L)
Day after initiation
Treatment
![Page 94: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.1 LFClay 0.2 LFSand 0.1 LFSand 0.2 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent (
L)
Day after initiation
Treatment
55,000 gallons per growing acre
![Page 95: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.1 LFClay 0.2 LFSand 0.1 LFSand 0.2 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg) Treatment
Day after initiation
![Page 96: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.1 LFClay 0.2 LFSand 0.1 LFSand 0.2 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg) Treatment
Day after initiation
14 mg
![Page 97: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
Input Efficiency
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Clay 0.1 LFClay 0.2 LFSand 0.1 LFSand 0.2 LF
Cum
ulat
ive
efflu
ent D
RP
(mg) Treatment
Day after initiation
7 mg
![Page 98: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
Input Efficiency ¢ Water buffering capacity
l Real-time monitoring • Weight
• Water loss • Container capacity
![Page 99: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
Input Efficiency
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00
Time and date
Con
tain
er c
apac
ity (%
)
ClaySand
Aug 23 Aug 24 Aug 25 Aug 26 Aug 27 Aug 28
Amendment
![Page 100: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
Input Efficiency
-2000
-1500
-1000
-500
0
ClaySand
5:30
7:30
9:30
11:3
0
13:3
0
15:3
0
17:3
0
19:3
0
21:3
0
Wat
er lo
ss (m
l)
daylight hours
Time (Sept.)
Amendment
![Page 101: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
Input Efficiency
-2000
-1500
-1000
-500
0
ClaySand
5:30
7:30
9:30
11:3
0
13:3
0
15:3
0
17:3
0
19:3
0
21:3
0
Wat
er lo
ss (m
l)
daylight hours
Time (Sept.)
Amendment
![Page 102: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
Input Efficiency
-2000
-1500
-1000
-500
0
ClaySand
5:30
7:30
9:30
11:3
0
13:3
0
15:3
0
17:3
0
19:3
0
21:3
0
Wat
er lo
ss (m
l)
daylight hours
Time (Sept.)
Amendment
334 mL
![Page 103: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/103.jpg)
Input Efficiency
-2000
-1500
-1000
-500
0
ClaySand
5:30
7:30
9:30
11:3
0
13:3
0
15:3
0
17:3
0
19:3
0
21:3
0
Wat
er lo
ss (m
l)
daylight hours
Time (Sept.)
Amendment
4% increase in available water which
equates into 500 ml
![Page 104: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/104.jpg)
Input Efficiency ¢ Phosphorus use efficiency
l ≤64% increase ¢ Water use efficiency
l ≤15% increase (43 mL g-1) ¢ Maximum growth
l ≤46% increase
![Page 105: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/105.jpg)
Overview ¢ Introduction ¢ Experiments l Clay processing l Clay rate l Input efficiency
¢ Conclusion ¢ Future
![Page 106: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/106.jpg)
Conclusion ¢ Maximum growth
l 0.25 to 0.85 mm l Low volatile material l 11% amendment l 50% reduction of inputs
• Phosphorus • Water
l Water buffering capacity
![Page 107: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/107.jpg)
Overview ¢ Introduction ¢ Experiments l Clay processing l Clay rate l Input efficiency
¢ Conclusion ¢ Future
![Page 108: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/108.jpg)
Future Research ¢ Species screen ¢ Nutrient addition
of clay l Phosphorus l Potassium
¢ Water Management
![Page 109: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/109.jpg)
Financial Support
NC STATE UNIVERSITY FNRI
![Page 110: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/110.jpg)
William Reece Mary Lorscheider Kim Hutchison Beth Harden Dr. Fonteno Dr. Northup Dr. Beauchemin Mike Jett Dr. Swallow Sandy Donaghy Bradley Holland Tim Ketchie Anthony LeBude Michelle McGinnis Cindy Proctor Carroll Williamson Kristen Walton Brian Jackson Daniel Norden Greta Bjorkquist Dr. Hunt
Committee: Dr. Warren Dr. Bilderback Dr. Cassel Dr. Hesterberg
Horticulture & Soil Science Faculty
& Graduate Students
My family
Thank you…..
![Page 111: Clay research summary](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051513/5464b683af7959cf288b4770/html5/thumbnails/111.jpg)
Thank you….. William Reece Mary Lorscheider Kim Hutchison Beth Harden Dr. Fonteno Dr. Northup Dr. Beauchemin Mike Jett Dr. Swallow Sandy Donaghy Bradley Holland Tim Ketchie Anthony LeBude Michelle McGinnis Cindy Proctor Carroll Williamson Kristen Walton Brian Jackson
Daniel Norden Greta Bjorkquist
Committee: Dr. Warren Dr. Bilderback Dr. Cassel Dr. Hesterberg
Horticulture & Soil Science Faculty
& Graduate Students
My family